The long road: from ENIAC to iPad: erinevus redaktsioonide vahel

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... is still under discussion (both in IT and otherwise).
... is still under discussion (both in IT and otherwise).
<ref>MOSCHOVITIS, C.J.P., POOLE, H., SCHUYLER, T. History of the Internet. ABC-Clio 1999, ISBN: 1576071189</ref>


But it is likely that humans started to compute soon after the first days. Besides fingers, sticks and stones, one of the first computing devices was probably  the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus abacus] that came into use as early as about 2700-3000BC (different sources offer different dates, e.g. Ifrah<ref>IFRAH, G. The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, John Wiley & Sons 2001. ISBN 0471396710</ref> suggests 2700BC). Another device that could be considered a sort of computer was the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scale weighing scale] used to compare the weight of an object with another. A very interesting find has been the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism Antikythera mechanism] which was recovered only in 1900AD but is thought to be an astronomical computer dating back to 100BC <ref>http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/overview</ref>.
But it is likely that humans started to compute soon after the first days. Besides fingers, sticks and stones, one of the first computing devices was probably  the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus abacus] that came into use as early as about 2700-3000BC (different sources offer different dates, e.g. Ifrah<ref>IFRAH, G. The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, John Wiley & Sons 2001. ISBN 0471396710</ref> suggests 2700BC). Another device that could be considered a sort of computer was the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scale weighing scale] used to compare the weight of an object with another. A very interesting find has been the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism Antikythera mechanism] which was recovered only in 1900AD but is thought to be an astronomical computer dating back to 100BC <ref>http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/overview</ref>.
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Older people may still recall a calculating device called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule slide rule] which was once taught at schools (in the former USSR, it went on up to the 80s - partially due to the electronic calculators being largely unavailable) and is sometimes still seen in the hands of 'old school' engineers. It was invented in 1632 in Oxford by a mathematician and Anglican minister<ref>http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Oughtred.html</ref> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oughtred William Oughtred] who built his invention on the logarithmic scale by another Englishman, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gunter Edmund Gunter]. The ''cursor'' or ''runner'' (the sliding window with a marker) was added by John Robertson in 1775<ref>http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/slidrul.htm</ref> (other sources point to French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, who is said to give the rule its present form in 1859).  
Older people may still recall a calculating device called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule slide rule] which was once taught at schools (in the former USSR, it went on up to the 80s - partially due to the electronic calculators being largely unavailable) and is sometimes still seen in the hands of 'old school' engineers. It was invented in 1632 in Oxford by a mathematician and Anglican minister<ref>http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Oughtred.html</ref> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Oughtred William Oughtred] who built his invention on the logarithmic scale by another Englishman, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Gunter Edmund Gunter]. The ''cursor'' or ''runner'' (the sliding window with a marker) was added by John Robertson in 1775<ref>http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/slidrul.htm</ref> (other sources point to French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, who is said to give the rule its present form in 1859).  


Modern computers use [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number_system binary number system]. In the modern context, it was first formalized by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz] (who also built his version of calculator called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner Stepped Reckoner] 1673), the traces of binary system however lead to a much more ancient time (some sources point to ancient India and a mathematician named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingala Pingala] living in the 2nd or 4th century before Christ). An early example of a programmable device can be found in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom Jacquard loom] by a French weaver and merchant [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard Joseph Marie Jacquard]. The loom used punched cards to set the pattern for the textile.
Modern computers use [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number_system binary number system]. In the modern context, it was first formalized by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz] (who also built his version of calculator called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stepped_Reckoner Stepped Reckoner] in 1673), the traces of binary system however lead to a much more ancient time (some sources point to ancient India and a mathematician named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pingala Pingala] living in the 2nd or 4th century before Christ). An early example of a programmable device can be found in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom Jacquard loom] by a French weaver and merchant [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard Joseph Marie Jacquard]. The loom used punched cards to set the pattern for the textile.


In 1822, English professor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage Charles Babbage] designs the ''Difference Engine'', followed by the larger and more complex ''Analytical Engine'' in 1830. Although both machines were not finished, they are considered an important step in the history of computing (some of them have been built lately to prove the validity of their concepts<ref>http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/</ref>. The Difference Engine was powered by cranking a handle<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lcedn6fxgS0</ref>, the Analytical Engine was to be steam-powered.  
In 1822, English professor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage Charles Babbage] designs the ''Difference Engine'', followed by the larger and more complex ''Analytical Engine'' in 1830. Although both machines were not finished, they are considered an important step in the history of computing (some of them have been built lately to prove the validity of their concepts<ref>http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/</ref>. The Difference Engine was powered by cranking a handle<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lcedn6fxgS0</ref>, the Analytical Engine was to be steam-powered.  
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Quite exceptionally for the period, Babbage was assisted by a young lady named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace Augusta Ada Byron], daughter of the famous English poet and later Countess of Lovelace. Babbage considered her one of the few people understanding his ideas, calling him "the Enchantress of Numbers"<ref>http://www.well.com/~adatoole/PoeticalScience.htm</ref>. She prepared a set of instructions (algorithm) for the to-be-built Analytical Engine that has been validated by later researchers as correct. Thus she is often considered the first programmer in the world - among other things, the new programming language designed by the US Department of Defense in 1979 was named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 Ada] after her.
Quite exceptionally for the period, Babbage was assisted by a young lady named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace Augusta Ada Byron], daughter of the famous English poet and later Countess of Lovelace. Babbage considered her one of the few people understanding his ideas, calling him "the Enchantress of Numbers"<ref>http://www.well.com/~adatoole/PoeticalScience.htm</ref>. She prepared a set of instructions (algorithm) for the to-be-built Analytical Engine that has been validated by later researchers as correct. Thus she is often considered the first programmer in the world - among other things, the new programming language designed by the US Department of Defense in 1979 was named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_%28programming_language%29 Ada] after her.


In 1837, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse Samuel Morse] invents the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code Morse code], the first globally used method for data transmission.  
In 1837, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse Samuel Morse] invents the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code Morse code], the first globally used method for data transmission (telegraph in its heyday was perhaps the most extensive unified information system before Internet). Likewise, the punched telegraph tape invented in 1857 by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone Charles Wheatstone] was the first widely used medium for data recording, becoming the forerunner of floppies, CD/DVD records and memory sticks.  
 
</a> morsetähestiku, 1857 kasutab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone">sir Charles Wheatstone</a>
(laia profiiliga leidur, muuhulgas leiutas ka kontsertiina ehk väikese lõõtspilli) esmakordselt andmete salvestamiseks paberlinti - alguse saab
linttelegraaf, kus morsetähestiku punktid-kriipsud kantakse aukudena kaherealisele paberlindile (punktid ühele, kriipsud teisele reale). Seda võib
lugeda üheks olulisemaks tänaste andmekandjate eelkäijaks.</p>
 
<p>1874/1878. (eri andmed) aastast pärineb rootslase  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willgodt_Odhner">Willgodt Odhneri</a>
aritmomeeter, mille üht edasiarendust teab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odhner_Arithmometer">Felixina</a> ka eestlaste
vanem põlvkond - seda toodeti N. Liidus massiliselt veel eelmise sajandi 70-ndatel aastatel.</p>
 
<p>1889 patenteerib saksa päritolu ameerika statistik  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a>
elektrilise tabulaatormasina, mis loeb andmeid perfokaartidelt. Masin leiab kasutust USA 1890. aasta rahvaloenduse andmete töötlemisel.
Hollerithi firma liitub hiljem 1911. aastal kolme teise firmaga ning 1924 võtab liitunud firma nimeks International Business Machines
Corporation ehk  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Business_Machines">IBM</a>.</p>
 
<p>1926 patenteeritakse  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors">pooljuhttransistor</a>.</p>
 
<p>1936 leiutatakse  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dvorak_keyboard">Dvoraki klaviatuur</a> - üks tänaseni kasutusel
olevatest alternatiividest tavalisele  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTY">QWERTY-klahvistikule</a>.</p>
 


<h3>Esimene arvuti</h3>


<p>Selles küsimuses madistavad targad mehed tänase päevani. Milline oli siis ikkagi kõige esimene tänapäeva arvuti? Harilikult on enamlevinud
=== The first modern computer ===
variante neli:</p>
<p>a)  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eniac">ENIAC</a> (<em>Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer</em>) - käivitati 1943 USA-s
Pennsylvania Ülikoolis John W. Mauchly (1907-80) ja J. Presper Eckerti (1919-95) juhtimisel. Siin on veel üks ajalooline vastasseis - nimelt
ehitas mõni aasta varem oma arvutusseadme prototüübi ka Iowa State College'i professor John Vincent Atanasoff ja et Mauchly temaga kohtus,
vaieldakse arvuti idee originaalsuse ja päritolu üle tänaseni. 1973. aastal tunnistas kohus Atanasoffi ja tema toonase assistendi Berry
võitjaks. ENIAC oli aga kindlasti esimene puht-elektronarvuti ning soodsate asjaolude tõttu ka esimene praktilist kasutust leidnud
üldotstarbeline arvuti.</p>


<p>b)  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer">ABC</a> (<em>Atanasoff-Berry Computer</em>) loeti ülalmainitud
kohtuprotsessil seega maailma esimeseks digitaalseks elektronarvutiks, kuid ka see otsus pole leidnud ühest heakskiitu.</p>


<p>c)  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer">Colossus</a> - käivitati 1942 Inglismaal. Colossus oli eelkõige
... is a hotly debated issue again. Various suggestions have been made, but four of them seem to be the most common:
deshifreerimisvahend - teda kasutasid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bletchley_Park">Bletchley Parki deshifreerijad</a>
sakslaste murdmatuks peetud Enigma-nimelise kodeerimisseadme koodide lahtimuukimisel ja ilmselt andsid sellega suure panuse
sõjaõnne pööramisse liitlaste kasuks. Vaieldakse aga, kas Colossus oli arvuti või n.ö. "madalam" aparaat...</p>


<p>d) [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> (1910-95) looming - 30. aastate Saksamaal ehitas arvuteid
# [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eniac ENIAC] (''Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer'') was launched in 1943 at the University of Pennsylvania by a team led by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mauchly John W. Mauchly] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert J. Presper Eckert]<ref>http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/eniac-story.html</ref>.
Konrad Zuse. Esimene arvuti, Z1 valmis aastail 1936-38, kuid hävines pommirünnakus (Märkus: 1986-89 ehitas nüüd juba auväärses vanuses
# [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer ABC] (''Atanasoff-Berry Computer'') was completed a year earlier, in 1942, at the Iowa State College by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Vincent_Atanasoff John Vincent Atanasoff] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Berry Clifford Berry]<ref>http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257001829419648</ref>. It is interesting to note that the bitter rivalry between the two machines and their builders spanned over several decades - while ENIAC was initially considered first, the 1973 court case decided in favour of Atanasoff and Berry<ref>http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/cbi00001.html</ref>. On the other hand, several other factors show ENIAC as a more complete machine that also found more use.
leidur selle täpse koopia!). Tema parandatud (nüüd releedel põhinev) Z3 nägi ilmavalgust enne ENIACi - 1941. aastal. Autor üritanud oma
# [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer The Colossus series] were built by British cryptanalysts during the WWII to assist in breaking German codes. Yet, as the ABC, the were not 'complete' computers and were dedicated to a single type of tasks<ref>http://www.ivorcatt.com/47c.htm</ref>.  
loomingut pakkuda armeele V-2 rakettide juhtimiseks, kuid kindralid polnud huvitatud ning sõjalõpu kaoses hävines ka arvuti prototüüp. Z3  
# [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_%28computer%29 Z3] and other machines built by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse Konrad Zuse] in Germany. The original Z3 was destroyed in the war and the work of Zuse fell into obscurity. Yet his machines could be perhaps considered the closest to the modern ones<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20080318184915/http://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73</ref>. It used the binary system (contrary to the ENIAC's decimal) and Zuse's programming language called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankalk%C3%BCl Plankalkül] is said to contain most of the features of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALGOL ALGOL], the language from the 50s usually considered the first<ref>http://www.zib.de/zuse/Inhalt/Programme/Plankalkuel/Plankalkuel-Report/Plankalkuel-Report.htm</ref>. On the other hand, Z3 was an electro-mechanical, not an electronic device. Thus, the whole matter is still largely undecided.
oli ENIACist "moodsam" seetõttu, et kasutas kahendsüsteemi - viimane töötas kümnendsüsteemis. Ka peavad paljud tehnikaajaloolased Konrad  
Zuse loodud Plankalkül-programmeerimiskeelt esimeseks nüüdisaegseks programmeerimiskeeleks (paljud seni esimeseks peetud keele ALGOLi
funktsioonid olid seal juba olemas). Seega eeskätt muidugi sakslased, aga ka paljud teised uurijad peavad Konrad Zuset esimese tänapäevase
arvuti loojaks. Samas aga puudub senini ühtne seisukoht (ühe kriitikana on toodud välja, et Z3 oli elektromehaaniline ja mitte elektrooniline
seade) - seega võib igaüks oma arvamuse ise kujundada....</p>




<h3>Kiviaeg</h3>
=== The Stone Age ===


<p>1944. aastal valmis  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvac">EDVAC</a> - esimene arvuti, millel oli tänapäeva mõistes salvestatud
In 1947, one of the best-known anecdotal stories in computing took place - a computer operator (most sources suggest that it was 'Grandma COBOL' or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_hopper Grace Murray Hopper]) searched for a reason of the computer not working, and finding a dead moth between two relay points, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:H96566k.jpg taped it to the log book] and added the notice "The first actual case of a bug being found". This is considered the birth of the computing terms of "bug" (error), "debug" (finding and fixing errors) and "debugger" (error finding/fixing software<ref>http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/hopper.htm</ref>.
programm ja mis kasutas esimesena kahendsüsteemi.</p>


<p>1945. (mõnedel andmetel 1947 - tegemist on ühe arvutiajastu levinuima anekdootliku juhtumiga, mille detailide üle vaieldakse, kuid ilmselt
In 1950, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_turing Alan Turing] formulated the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_test Turing test] to determine if a machine is capable of intelligent behaviour<ref>http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html</ref>. Simply put: the machine is considered intelligent if a human interacting with it cannot determine if he/she is interacting with another human or a machine. During the same year, the first computer named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware_in_Soviet_Bloc_countries MESM] is also built in the Soviet Union. While the Communist countries had a good share of talented mathematicians to provide a theoretical base for technology, they fell seriously behind in the realm of computing - two main reasons being the closedness as well as the overall ignorance (including labelling of many kinds of actual research like psychology and cybernetics 'Western pseudoscience'<ref>http://www.cs.ut.ee/~varmo/tday-polva/tyugu-slides.pdf</ref>) and ineffectiveness of the regime<ref>http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/debcampbell/01-HisPlan12/3-GF/EspionnageLabo/spiesInsideKGBSite.htm</ref>.
leidis see ka tegelikult aset) aastast pärineb väljend "bug" - legendaarne naisprogrammeerija  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_hopper">Grace Murray Hopper</a>  
leiab Harvardi Mark II arvutist viga otsides lülituste vahele ära surnud ja lühise tekitanud koi. Siit arendati ka väljendid "debug" ja "debugger".</p>


<p>1948 luuakse  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univac">UNIVAC</a>, esimene ärilistel eesmärkidel valmistatud arvuti. Samal aastal
During the fifties, two important technologies contributed towards the miniaturization of computing technology - in 1954, Texas Instruments started to mass-produce [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistortransistors] (which were actually invented already in 1934) and in 1958, the same company introduces the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit integrated circuit].
patenteerivad Bell Labsi töötajad John Bardeen, Walter Brattain ja William Schockley esimese transistori (esimesed katsetused pärinevad juba
eelnevast aastast).</p>


<p>1950 saavad esimese arvuti nimega  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MESM#MESM">MESM</a> valmis ka venelased. Nõukogude Liidu (ja
Another noteworthy person who was clearly ahead of his time in the 60s was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart Douglas Engelbart] - the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse computer mouse] was first patented by him in 1963<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1633972.stm</ref> (but became widely used only in the 80s). He went on to develop [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext hypertext] (the most common example of the principle nowadays being the Web with its linked pages) and by 1968, an early [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface graphical user interface] (which is today used by all widely used computer systems, examples being MS Windows, Apple OS X as well as several desktop systems of variants of Unix and Linux). His 1968 demonstration of then-future computer technologies was later nicknamed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mother_of_All_Demos The Mother of All Demos]<ref>http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/12/dayintech_1209</ref>.
kogu endise idabloki) arvutustehnika areng jäi rezhiimi suletuse tõttu aga üsna kehvaks, suur osa toodetud arvutitest jäid Lääne masinate
viletsateks kloonideks (ehkki oli ka erandeid, pidurdas rezhiimi rumalus olulisel määral tehnika arengut). Samal aastal sõnastab briti matemaatik
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing">Alan Turing</a> nn. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_Test">Turingi testi</a> -
mistahes masin (sh arvuti) on intelligentne siis, kui temaga eemalt suhtlev inimene ei saa aru, et suhtluspartneriks pole inimene, vaid masin.</p>


<p>1954 hakkab Texas Instruments tootma transistoreid kommertstootena ning 1956 luuakse esimene transistoreil põhinev arvuti  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TX-0">TX-O</a> (<em>Transistor Experimental Computer</em>).</p>
In 1966, IBM develops the first magnetic disk systems. At first, the "hard disks" of the day were huge, cupboard-like devices which gave rise to various 'urban legends' - e.g. the one about walking disk drives<ref>http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/W/walking-drives.html</ref>. However, some years later in 1971, the company already produced the first generation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk floppy disks], the 8-inch diskette<ref>http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_chrono20.html</ref>.


<p>1958 töötatakse Texas Instrumentsis välja esimene  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit">integraalskeem</a>.</p>
The year of 1969 has several important landmarks in the history of IT. It can be considered the birth year of Internet, as the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching packet switching network] (the communication is done by small chunks of information called packages, which travel independently over the network; the principle is a basic one in today's Internet as well) connects four universities in the US<ref>MOSCHOVITIS, C.J.P., POOLE, H., SCHUYLER, T., SENFT, T.M. History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present. ABC-Clio 1999, ISBN: 1576071189</ref> - at first, the network becomes known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpanet ARPANET]. The AT&T develops the first version of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix Unix], the first computer operating system being widely portable<ref>http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/hist.html</ref> and eventually becoming a parent for today's two well-known systems in Apple OS X and the Linux family.


<p>1960 avab IBM New Yorkis esimese automatiseeritud tehase transistorite tootmiseks.</p>
=== The Bronze Age ===


<p>1963 -  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelbart">Douglas Engelbart</a> patenteerib arvutihiire.</p>
In 1971 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Tomlinson Ray Tomlinson], an engineer at MIT, managed to send a message from one computer to another<ref>http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm</ref> - his system gets adopted by the ARPANET the next year, becoming what we know today as e-mail.


<p>1964 luuakse Dartmouthi kolledzhis  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC">BASIC</a>, tänini laialt kasutatav lihtne programmeerimiskeel
In 1972, Intel released the first 8-bit microprocessor - with its frequency of 200kHz, it looks antique in comparison with todays 2GHz+ models, yet it was an important step towards personal computers. In the same year, two young men named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_gates William Henry Gates III] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Allen Paul Allen], create their first company to sell a simple system for traffic density analysis  - both the device and the company were called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traf-O-Data Traf-O-Data]. On another front, the newly formed company called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari Atari] releases its first commercial video game titled [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pong Pong] - while not the first computer game in history, Pong is definitely a forefather of game consoles like Nintendo, Playstation or X-Box. And finally, diskettes started to shrink - the new ones went from 8 inches to mere [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flippy_disk5.25].
(tänapäeval vist enim levinud Microsofti Visual Basicu vormis). DEC loob esimese eduka miniarvuti  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8">PDP-8</a>.</p>


<p>1966 töötab IBM välja esimese ketassalvesti.</p>
Another anecdotal story recalls the first use of real-time text chat over the network - and as so characteristic to the Internet, it was a bit knocked-off by nature: someone at Stanford acted as a mental patient, asking advice from a 'psychiatrist' sitting in Massachusetts<ref>http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm</ref>...


<p>1967 teeb IBM esimese  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk">flopiketta</a>.</p>
The landmarks of 1973 include the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M CP/M], an operating system by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Kildall Gary Kildall] which [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_machines_running_CP/M among other machines] was also popular on various computers built in the Eastern Bloc of the day (e.g. the Juku in Estonia); the specification of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet Ethernet] by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Metcalfe Bob Metcalfe] which is still today the main standard for local computer networks<ref>http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96</ref>; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ftp FTP] is devised to move files over the network; IBM releases its first series of hard disks [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_IBM_disk_storage#IBM_3340 codenamed Winchester] - the name would become the generic term for hard disks for some time.


<p>1968 demonstreerib Douglas Engelbart Stanfordi Uurimisinstituudis kasutajaliidest, mis pruugib klaviatuuri, hiirt ja ekraaniaknaid. Robert Noyce
1975 is the birth year of a big player in the world of software. Two guys from Traf-O-Data wrpte their version of the well-known BASIC programming language and renamed their company [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft Microsoft] (at first, in the form of 'Micro-Soft'). They also created a substantial controversy by starting to ask money for every copy of their software, a concept totally alien back then. Bill's attempt to convince users that the new model works well was not considered very successful<ref>http://www.blinkenlights.com/classiccmp/gateswhine.html</ref>. Two signs from that year indicated the growing mainstreaming of computers - a retail store chain specializing on computers ('Computer Store') was founded, just as the first specialized magazine titled "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_%28magazine%29 Byte]". ARPANET opens the first mailing lists<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm</ref>.
ja Graham Moore panevad aluse Intel Corporationile.</p>


<p>1969 jääb ajalukku mitme olulise sündmusena. Tinglikult võib seda pidada Interneti sünniaastaks - luuakse esimene  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching">pakettsidevõrk</a>
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc. Apple] was founded just a year later in 1976 by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs Steve Jobs] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak Steve Wozniak]. While Gates and Allen started with and stayed mostly on software, Apple started out as a hardware company selling the do-it-yourself type [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_I Apple I].
nelja USA ülikooli vahel. Asutatakse AMD (<em>Advanced Micro Devices Inc.</em>). AT&amp;T töötab välja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix">Unixi</a>.  
Xeroxi laborites töötatakse välja laserprinteri põhimõtteline skeem. Lisaks võib samast aastast mainida ka veel inimese jõudmist Kuule ning  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Torvalds">Linus Torvaldsi</a> nimelise poisi sündimist Helsinkis.</p>


<p>1970. Xerox asutab PARC-i (<em>Palo Alto Research Center</em>).</p>
It perhaps noteworthy that even if Microsoft Excel is nearly synonymous with spreadsheet software for many people, the first spreadsheet clearly predates Microsoft system - the first was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visicalc VisiCalc], released in 1979. The same year gave us also [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet Usenet] newsgroups<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm</ref> and first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD MUDs]<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html</ref>.


<p>1971 töötab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth">Niklaus Wirth</a> välja [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_%28programming_language%29">Pascali</a>.
While Microsoft definitely has many friends, the controversies surrounding the company started early on as well. There are several different story versions about the 1980-81 birth of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS_DOS MS DOS], the first best-selling software by Microsoft - the official version by the company<ref>http://www.patersontech.com/Dos/Micronews/paterson04_10_98.htm</ref> recalls buying the system from the Seattle Computer Products, some more critical voices suggest far less favourable scenarios<ref>http://www.vanwensveen.nl/rants/microsoft/IhateMS_1.html</ref>. On the hardware front, Sony released the highly successful [3.5-inch diskette], and in co-operation with Philips, develops the first version of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Disc CD audio standard].
IBM võtab kasutusele 8-tollise "pehme" flopiketta.</p>


Microsoft's historical dominance started with their luck (or business skill, depending on the view) to strike a deal with IBM to supply operating system for their new |http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibm_5150 Personal Computer Model 5150], which went on to be the first of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC the whole generation of personal computers]. Among three candidates, IBM chose MS-DOS and the huge sales of the computer translated into a huge success for the operating system vendor.


<h3>Pronksiaeg</h3>
=== The Iron Age ===


<p>1972. Intel teeb valmis esimese 8-bitise mikroprotsessori 8008 (taktsagedusega 200 kHz). Luuakse  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari">Atari</a>,  
1982 was the year of rapid spread for the IBM's PC - an important reason being the emergence of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible PC compatibles] or "PC clones". Due to some technical factors, IBM could not withhold others from copying the design - the fact that was initially considered a curse but came out a blessing. At the time of its birth, IBM PC was one of the many kinds of personal computers available, by 1986 the market share of PC compatibles had exceeded 50%<ref>http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/12/total-share.ars/1</ref>. A number of technically more advanced designed were forced out of the market. This could be seen an important lesson about the power of open standards. The same year, Mouse Systems introduced their mouse for PCs, yet it remained a little more than curiosity for several years (largely up to the emergence of Microsoft Windows 3.0 in 1990; in contrast, Apple made mouse an integral part of their systems remarkably earlier). ARPANET extends to the United Kingdom and Norway, becoming Internet. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Fahlman Scott Fahlman] proposes using [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticon emoticons] (also known as smileys) to denote emotions in online texts<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20071012051803/http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/09/18/emoticon.anniversary.ap/index.html</ref> (there are also differing views on the origin).
mis toob turule esimese kommerts-videomängu  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pong">Pong</a>.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates">William H. Gates III</a>  
ja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Allen">Paul Allen</a> loovad oma esimese firma nimega  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traf-O-Data">Traf-O-Data</a>.  
Esitletakse uudseid 5,25-tolliseid diskette.</p>


<p>1973.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Kildall">Gary Kildall</a> kirjutab PL/M keele baasil uue operatsioonisüsteemi nimega
In 1983, IBM produced a next model of PCs, the 5160 or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_XT PC XT], which was the first model with a (typically 10MB) hard disk. Apple counters with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Lisa Lisa] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIe IIe] - also, one of their trademark models, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh Macintosh] (giving its name to all later Macs) was released about then (different sources mention either 1983 or 1984). Microsoft announced the initial version of a new environment named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows Windows] - yet it was released only in 1985 and became practically usable (more or less so) with the version 3.0 in 1990.
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/M">CP/M</a> (mida aastaid hiljem kasutas veel "Juku"-nimeline nõukogude uunikum). Esmakordselt
mainitakse trükisõnas mikroarvutit.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Metcalfe">Bob Metcalfe</a> töötab koos kolleegidega välja
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet">Etherneti</a> võrguspetsifikatsiooni.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_IBM_disk_storage#IBM_3340">IBM 3340 kõvakettaseade koodnimega Winchester</a>
(sel oli kaks 30MB ketast, mistõttu insenerid nimetasid seda kuulsa vintpüssimudeli järgi "30-30") saab aluseks kõigile teistele "vintidele".</p>


<p>1974. Uued 8-bitised mikroprotsessorid: 8080 Intelilt ja 6800 Motorolalt. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie">Dennis Ritchie</a>
It is noteworthy that while there was no Windows, there were already several providers of what we nowadays know as office software - e.g. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3 Lotus 1-2-3], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordperfect WordPerfect], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Tool_Word Multi-Tool Word] and others. Yet in the realm of word processing, perhaps the most successful software product of the early 80s was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WordStar WordStar] - it was originally designed for CP/M, but due to good portability took soon over the PC market as well<ref>http://www.wordstar.org/index.php/wordstar-history</ref>.
saab valmis  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29">C</a> ( [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Kernighan">Brian Kernighani</a>
rolli üle vaieldakse; arendus algas 1969. aastal).</p>


<p>1975. Bill Gates ja Paul Allen kirjutavad oma BASICu ja hakkavad seda litsentseerima. Traf-O-Datast saab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</a>  
In general it was  the time of entrenchment of the proprietary, commercial and closed software model. Yet there was an 'old school hacker' named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman Richard Stallman] who decided to rebel against it - at the end of 1983, he announced a plan to re-write the widely used Unix operating system and give it freely away to anyone interested<ref>http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html</ref>. While many people shrugged on the idea, he was determined and launched the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Project GNU project] which became the foundation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software Free Software movement]. This topic will be covered more thoroughly in the next lectures.
(alguses kujul Micro-Soft). IBM tutvustab esimest kantavat arvutit. Ilmuma hakkab ajakiri "Byte". USA-s avatakse esimene arvutite jaemüügikett "Computer Store".</p>


<p>1976.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs">Steve Jobs</a> ja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak">Steve Wozniak</a> asutavad
Finally, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidonet Fidonet] was also born that year - the dial-in ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system BBS]) based network which was especially popular in places where local phone calls were inexpensive or free and vice versa, computer access was restricted (including the former Eastern Bloc). Only when the Internet became the household word at the end of the century, did it back down but is maintained by enthusiasts till today.
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.">Apple'i</a> ja hakkavad oma  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_I">Apple I</a>
turustama konstruktorilaadses vormis kasutajatel endal kokkupanemiseks. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Laboratories">Wang</a> toob
turule oma tekstiprotsessori, mis on kirjutusmasina ja arvuti omalaadne hübriid. Asutatakse US Robotics. Intel ja AMD sõlmivad ühilduvuskokkuleppe.</p>


<p>1978. Intel tutvustab 4,77 MHz 8086 protsessorit. Asutatakse Hayes Microcomputer Products, tuntud modemitootja.</p>
1984 was the beginning of mass-produced CD-ROMs and IBM released [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_AT PC AT] which was a substantial improvement over the XT (from the software point of view, the IBM compatible computers have not changed much since then - still, the hardware side as well as the overall performance have changed dramatically). Massachusetts Institute of Technology releases the first version of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System X Window System] - interestingly, the Unix standard of graphical user interface predates Microsoft Windows by several years. In Moscow, Alexey Pajitnov wrote one of the most popular computer games - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris Tetris]. It was followed by a multitude of both legal and not-so-legal copies, one of them which created a real boom among Estonian computer users at the end of the 80s (Tallinn University of Technology even organised a championship tournament!) was aptly named 'Totrus' (Estonian for 'folly', 'stupidity', also 'rubbish').


<p>1979. Ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visicalc">VisiCalc</a>, tänapäevaste tabelitöötlussüsteemide esivanem. Asutatakse Seagate
By the mid-80s, Internet had matured to be a widespread, yet mostly academic and non-profit (commercial activities like advertisement were prohibited) entity, with e-mail, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet Telnet], FTP and Usenet as its main services.
ja 3Com. Tutvustatakse IBM 3800 laserprinterit ja esimest 16-bitist mikroprotsessorit Motorola 68000.</p>


<p>1980. Microsoft proovib luua AT&amp;T Unixist (!!!) 8086-versiooni ja tuleb lagedale  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenix">XENIX OS-i</a>
In 1987, Microsoft and IBM teamed up and announced a new operating system named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os/2 OS/2]. The system can be considered a classic example of a superior product falling victim to the market manipulations - after some years, Microsoft backed out with most of the know-how obtained going into their new Windows. While IBM kept OS/2, it was thoroughly hampered by the rights on some parts which belonged to Microsoft, and was never able to really take off.
nimelise Unixi klooniga, kuid siis avastab Seattle Computer Productsi nimelise naaberfirma projekti oma operatsioonisüsteemi loomiseks ning hakkab seda
endale kauplema. Projekti nimeks on algselt  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86-DOS">QDOS</a> (<em>Quick and Dirty Operating System</em>),  
hiljem nimetab SCP selle 86-DOSiks. Paralleelselt peab MS läbirääkimisi IBM-iga, varustamaks nende arvuteid oma operatsioonisüsteemiga (enamiku
allikate järgi ei olnud neil seda tollal veel olemaski!). Seagate toob turule 5,25" Winchester-kõvaketta, Sony töötab välja 3,5-tollise disketi.
Intel tutvustab 8087-matemaatikaprotsessorit ning Philips ja Sony töötavad välja CD-audiostandardi.</p>


<p>1981. Microsoft saab korporatsiooniks ning omandab (viisi üle vaieldakse) SCP DOSi, nimetades selle  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS">MS-DOSiks</a>.  
In 1989, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN CERN] in Switzerland is connected to the Internet. A staff member named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_berners-lee Tim Berners-Lee] starts to work on an idea of scientific documents linked together as hypertext - today we know it as the Web<ref>http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html</ref>.
Tootmisliinilt tuleb esimene  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC">IBM PC</a> (IBM 5150), mida alguses pakutakse kolme erineva
operatsioonisüsteemiga. Novell loob tänapäevase kohtvõrgu esimese eellase, mis võimaldab andmevahetust eri arvutite kõvaketaste vahel. Asutatakse
Silicon Graphics. Intel ja AMD jätkavad endiselt koostööd protsessorite vallas.</p>


<h3>Rauaaeg</h3>
1990 is the release year of the first version of MS Windows that was stable enough for wider public - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0 Windows 3.0]. Still, its moderate success was surpassed by far by its very popular successor, 3.1.
The University of California, Berkeley introduced the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD BSD Unix] system family. Since then, they have been a rather significant niche systems since (especially in business server systems, due to a liberal licence; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbsd OpenBSD] is also considered one of the most secure systems in its default configuration), but are also notable for forming the base of Apple OS X (Apple built a commercial "upper layer" on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_%28operating_system%29 Darwin], a variant of BSD).


<p>1982. Intel tutvustab 6-MHz 80286-mikroprotsessorit. IBM PC-d turustatakse algselt CP/M-86 operatsioonisüsteemiga, kuid Microsoft toob turule
=== The Internet Age ===
MS-DOS 1.1 ja saavutab sellele püsiva koha IBM PC süsteemina. Asutatakse Sun ja Adobe, ilmub ka SunOS 1.0 (tänase  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_%28operating_system%29">Solarise</a>
esivanem). Ilmub esimene IBM PC kloon. Mouse Systems hakkab pakkuma IBM PC-le mõeldud hiirt. Philadelphias asuv Drexeli ülikool läheb ajalukku nõudega, et igal tudengil oleks personaalarvuti.</p>


<p>1983. IBM toob turule [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_XT">PC XT</a>, Apple vastab omalt poolt  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Lisa">Lisa</a> ja 
1991 was another landmark year.  Tim Berners-Lee published his method of hypertext (notably under public domain - had he chosen otherwise, saying that the world would have been different is not an exaggeration). In the United States, the National Science Foundation lifts the ban on the commercial use of Internet<ref>http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/</ref> - it makes possible a lot of new services, but also opens the door to spam and cybercrime. A student of the University of Helsinki in Finland named [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_torvalds Linus Torvalds] announces his "new Unix-like operating system" hobby project<ref>http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b?dmode=source&pli=1</ref>, later known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux Linux].  
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_IIe">IIe</a> väljalaskmisega ( [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Macintosh">Macintoshi</a> täpse väljalaskeaasta üle
vaieldakse - 1983 või 1984). Microsoft tutvustab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows">Windowsi</a> algvarianti. Asutatakse Compaq, Borland ja Electronic
Arts. Wangi firma loob SIMM- mälumooduli.  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroustrup">Bjarne Stroustrup</a> töötab välja
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B">C++</a>. Tarkvaraturule ilmuvad Lotus 1-2-3, Wordperfect 3.0 ja Multi-Tool Word (MS Wordi
eellane),  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare">Novell Netware'ist</a> saab esimene PC-de võrgu-operatsioonisüsteem.
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stallman">Richard M. Stallman</a> alustab  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Project">GNU projekti</a>
ehk uue Unixi-laadse operatsioonisüsteemi loomist -  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_movement">vaba tarkvara liikumise</a> algus.</p>


<p>1984. IBM laseb välja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_AT">PC AT</a>, IBM Portable PC ning EGA graafikaadapteri. Philips hakkab
The next year, Microsoft releases one of their most successful systems which makes Bill Gates the richest person in the US: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x Windows 3.1], followed by the success of the enterprise-oriented NT series. In Internet, the Web technology started its explosive growth. In 1994, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Andreessen Mark Andreessen] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Clark Jim Clark] founded [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape Netscape] and created their browser of the same name, a successor to the first widely used web browser [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCSA_Mosaic Mosaic].  
tootma PC-dele CD-ROM-e. Silicon Graphics alustab võimsate 3D-graafikatööjaamade tootmist. HP toob turule LaserJeti printeriseeria.  
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit">MIT-s</a> töötatakse välja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System">X Window System</a>
(seega on praeguseni Unixitel-Linuxitel pruugitav graafiline keskkond üksjagu vanem kui MS Windows). Aleksei Pazhitnov kirjutab Moskvas prototüübi
ühele tuntuima arvutimängule -  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris">Tetrisele</a> (üht selle klooni mängis siinkirjutaja
mõni aasta hiljem eestikeelsena Totruse nime all; selles peeti isegi TTÜ meistrivõistlusi). </p>


<p>1985. Apple'i asutaja Steve Jobs lahkub (lüüakse minema?) firmast ja asutab NeXT Inc-i. Microsoft üllitab Windows 1.0</p>
For awhile, Microsoft downplayed the role of the Internet, preferring to focus on their own proprietary Microsoft Network. By 1995, they had learned of their mistake and decided to catch up<ref>http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/exhibits/20.pdf</ref>. At first trying unsuccessfully to convince Netscape to divide the market<ref>http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/msdoj/transcript/summaries1.html</ref>, they obtained a Mosaic-derived browser from Spyglass and developed it into the [Internet Explorer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer]. Initially not very successful, the version 2.0 was distributed for free (Netscape was only free for non-commercial use) and launched the so-called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browser_wars browser wars] which were finally won by Microsoft in 1997 when Netscape was acquired by AOL. However, the win resulted in several years of monopoly charges for Microsoft and the open-sourcing of Mozilla (initially the codename for Netscape's development version) giving rise to Firefox and several other browsers.


<p>1986. IBM PC AT saab 8 MHz protsessori. Microsoft annab välja MS-DOS 3.2.</p>
1995 was a successful year for Microsoft, who released [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95 Windows 95] as well as MS Office 95 and Windows NT 3.51. Yet in the same year, Bob Young and Marc Ewing found possibly the most successful commercial Linux company, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_hat Red Hat]. In the hardware world, it is the birth year of two well-known connector standards: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus USB] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1394_interface IEEE 1394], also known as FireWire (used extensively by Apple).


<p>1987. Sun tutvustab SPARC-tööjaama, IBM demonstreerib 20 MHz taktsagedusega  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I386">386-protsessoriga PC-d</a>.
While Linux established itself as viable server system soon enough (especially as the software set known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble LAMP] used to power a large share of web servers since mid-90s), it did not become as successful as a desktop system. In late nineties however, a step to that direction was made by the foundation of the two major desktop environments in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME GNOME] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE KDE].
IBM loob PC-DOS 3.3, Microsoft toob turule Windows 2.0 ja Windows/386, ühiselt tuuakse avalikkuse ette uus operatsioonisüsteem  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os/2">OS/2</a>.  
Ilmub VGA graafikastandard. Inteli ja AMD rahumeelne koostöö saab otsa - toimub esimene kohtuvaidlus.</p>


<p>1988. Intelilt 25 MHz 386DX ja 16 MHz 386SX. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scsi">SCSI-liidesestandard</a> leiab ametlikku
In 1998, Microsoft releases its next operating system, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98 Windows 98]. Apple returned to the spotlight with their [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac iMac], a novel design combining the case and the monitor of the personal computer. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandriva_Linux Mandrake] (later Mandriva) is the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution Linux distribution] specifically meant for desktop use (at first using mostly KDE as its environment). The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble] raised briefly the hopes of many people, but the dreams came true only for a small minority.
tunnustust. Microsoftilt ilmub MS-DOS 4.0. Asutatakse Creative Labs (tuntud eelkõige SoundBlaster-tooteseeria järgi). HP alustab DeskJet-printeriseeria tootmist.</p>


<p>1989. Intelilt ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486">486-protsessor</a>. Pannakse alus  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMCIA">PCMCIA</a> standardile.  
In the turn of the year 1999/2000, Microsoft released [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000 Windows 2000] - despite extensive promotion, the initial reception was somewhat disappointing<ref>http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/it-strategy/2000/02/14/bugfest-win2000-has-63000-defects-2076967/</ref>, forcing the company to follow up with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_pack Service Pack 1] rather soon. Moreover, the desktop-oriented replacement for Windows 98, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Me Windows ME], has been considered by many the worst release of Windows<ref>http://www.pcworld.com/article/125772-2/the_25_worst_tech_products_of_all_time.html</ref>, forcing the company to speed up the development of the next release. However, the 2001 release of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP Windows XP], being one of the most successful releases, set the company back on the tracks.
Creative Labs toob turule SoundBlasteri.</p>


<p>1990. Ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0">Microsoft Windows 3.0</a> - seeria esimene arvestatav toode. IBM töötab
The new century began well for Microsoft, having overcome the legal hassles and successfully released Windows XP and MS Office 2000. However, its competitors did not relax either - Apple developed their new Unix-based operating system family in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_x OS X], and for the first time, Linux software displayed more serious ambition on desktop as well - the WordPerfect Office 2000 was the first major office suite released for Linux among other platforms, and Sun started to distribute their freshly acquired StarOffice 5.2 as a free download<ref>http://www.linuxplanet.com/linuxplanet/reviews/1844/1</ref>. Moreover, in late 2000 Sun split their StarOffice into a commercial offering of the same name and a community project title [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenOffice.org OpenOffice.org] (nowadays distributed as Apache OpenOffice), the latter becoming an usable solution in less than a year.
välja XGA graafikastandardi. Berkeley Ülikooli 4.3BSD vabaneb täiesti AT&amp;T Unixi kommertskoodist ja moodustab omaette tarkvaraperekonna  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD">BSD Unixite</a> näol.</p>


=== The New Millennium ===


<h3>Internetiaja algus (laiemas mõttes)</h3>
The first decade of the century feature among other things
* the  wireless boom - wireless networks spread fast both as commercial offerings and as public services.
* the rise of free and open-source software in developing countries - especially prominent examples were Chile, Peru and Venezuela<ref>http://www.brod.com.br/files/helsinki.pdf</ref>.
* laptop computers and notebooks becoming affordable for 'average people'
* rapid spread of affordable broadband Internet connections
* the dark side of networking - hijacking the computers of 'ordinary users' becomes a major problem
* various regulative legislation proposed, some of which are considered threatening to overall freedom
* recent developments point towards the 'post-desktop' era - stationary computers are outnumbered by mobile devices (laptops, notebooks, tablets and smartphones).


<p>1991. Linus Torvalds saadab uudisegruppidesse teate "uue Unixi-laadse operatsioonisüsteemi" loomisest -  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux">Linuxi</a>
Some interesting examples from the last decade:
sünd. Microsoft arendab Windowsi ja OS/2 ideid segades välja Windows NT 3.0, ilmub ka MS-DOS 5.0. SunOS muutub Solariseks. Creative Labsi SB Pro
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_Group The SCO lawsuit] 2003-2011 (could even continue in the future) - the claim by SCO Group that Linux kernel 2.4 contains some code belonging to them. Most sources agree that the motivation was to force IBM to buy out the company. Interesting factors include
Deluxe'ist saab esimene PC stereohelikaart ja HP ScanJet IIc-st esimene värviskanner. Intel tutvustab PCI-siinistandardit. Internetti lubatakse
** for the better part of the suit, the software in question has been outdated and replaced by new 2.6 kernel series (i.e. is not in use anymore)
esmakordselt kasutada kommertseesmärkidel - algul tekib E-turundus, siis ka E-kaubandus ja E-äri, järk-järgult aga saab Internetist igapäevaelu
** throughout the process, the suitor has not managed to identify the exact code in question
lahutamatu osa.</p>
** from time to time, the suitor appeared to have received new funding to continue the process


<p>1992. Microsoftilt ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x">Windows 3.1</a>. William H. Gates tunnistatakse USA
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_directive_on_the_patentability_of_computer-implemented_inventions The software patent war in European Parliament] 2004-2005 - the controversal EU directive proposal about whether software is patentable or not bounced several times between the European Parliament (majority opposing it) and the European Commission (supporting it), each time changing slightly. Finally, the proposal was overwhelmingly rejected in July 2005.
rikkaimaks inimeseks.</p>


<p>1993. Intel esitleb Pentium-protsessorit. Pinnacle Micro esitleb CD-R-i. Microsoftilt ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT">NT</a> 3.1.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_%28operating_system%29 Ubuntu] - starting in 2004, the Linux distribution backed by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Shuttleworth Mark Shuttleworth] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_Ltd. Canonical Ltd.] had a rapid rise to the top soon after its initial release. With a steady release cycle (twice a year) and orientation to ordinary computer users, it became 'THE Linux' for many and at times, was able to challenge the established desktop operating systems by Microsoft and Apple. However, some recent development have resulted in controversy and alienated some of its user base.
Windowsi tarkvara müügimaht ületab esmakordselt DOS-i oma. Mitme suurfirma ühistööna töötatakse välja Plug-and-Play standard. Berkeley ülikooli
Unixi-variandist nimega BSD arenevad umbes ühel ajal välja [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>,  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a>
ja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD">NetBSD</a>, tänaseni üsna edukad vabad Unixi variandid.</p>


<p>1994. Ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x">Windows 3.11</a> (for Workgroups), NT 3.5 (Workstation ja Server -versioonid) ja
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook Netbooks] - since 2007, the small, light and cheap notebook computers mostly meant for e-mail, notetaking and simple web surfing. It is interesting to note that they were initially dominated by Linux - due to the fact that the Microsoft operating system of the day ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_vista Vista]) was unable to run on them. Microsoft reacted by extending the support of XP until their new release ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7 Windows 7]) with lesser requirements on hardware arrived. Recently, they are increasingly being challenged by tablets.
viimane MS-DOS: 6.22. Apple töötab välja QuickTime -multimeediastandardi. Luuakse Netscape 1.0. Motorola, Apple ja IBM üritavad luua
riistvaraplatvormi, mis toetaks kõiki levinud operatsioonisüsteeme peale Windowsi. Iomega töötab välja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_drive">ZIP-kettad</a>.
Intel tunnistab, et ca 2 miljonil müüdud Pentium-protsessoril on probleeme ujukomatehetega. Ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB">USB</a> standardi
esimene avalikum tööversioon 0.7.</p>


<p>1995. Microsoft teeb Netscape'ile ettepaneku mitte luua oma brauserist Windowsi versiooni. Netscape'i keeldumine vallandab nn. brauserisõja.
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberwar Politically motivated cyberattacks] - while the history of such attacks dates back to the 90s, they have been increasingly prominent recently.
Intel toob turule P6 (Pentium Pro) protsessori. Microsoftilt ilmub  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95">Windows 95</a>,  
Office 95 ja NT 3.51. DVD-standardi esmatutvustus. Alguse saavad kaks tänaseks väga levinud ühendusstandardit  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1394_interface">IEEE 1394</a> (FireWire) ja USB.</p>


<p>1996. Microsoftilt ilmub NT 4.0 ja Office 97 esmaversioon. Netscape'i Navigator 2.02-le vastukaaluna toob MS välja esimese reaalselt kasutatava Internet Exploreri versiooni 2.0.</p>
* The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_%28operating_system%29 Android] operating system developed by Google-led Open Handset Alliance since 2007 and together with Apple iOS, successfully bridging the gaps between the phones, larger handheld devices and notebooks (a good example of the latter is the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASUS_Eee_Pad_Transformer Asus Eee Pad Transformer]).


<p>1997. Microsofti monopoli-kohtuasja algus.</p>
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipad iPad] - first released in 2010, it has defined the tablet computer for many users.
 
<p>1998. Intelilt ilmub Pentium II -protsessor. Microsoft annab välja  [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98">Windows 98</a>.
Netscape kuulutab oma Navigatori lähtekoodi vabaks, aasta lõpus ostab AOL Netscape'i ära. Apple toob välja iMac-i ja jõuab üle mõne aja taas
kasumisse. Võrgufirmade aktsiate maruline tõus USA turul, võrguäri buumi algus. USB 1.1 standard leiab laia kasutajaskonna ning sellest saab
pikkamööda üks valitsevaid välisseadmete ühendusviise.</p>
 
<p>1999. Intel tutvustab Pentium III -protsessorit, AMD vastab Athloniga. Microsofti kohtuasi jätkub - leitakse, et firma on taotlenud monopoli ja
kahjustanud tarbijate huve. MS saab aasta lõpuks valmis [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000">Windows 2000</a>.</p>
 
<p>2000. Y2K "Suur pauk" jääb siiski olemata. Protsessorite taktsagedused ületavad 1 GHz. Välja tuleb senisest kiirem USB 2.0 ning ilmuvad esimesed
seda kasutavad andmekandjad (mälupulgad). Win 2000 tuleb välja üsna augulisena, SP-1 parandab ca 300 algvariandis esinenud viga. Ilmub ka
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_ME">Windows ME</a>, ilmselt seni kõige ebaõnnestunum Windowsi väljalase. WordPerfect Office 2000
for Linux on koos StarOffice'iga esimene tõsine Linuxi kontoripakett.</p>
 
<h3>Uuel sajandil</h3>
 
<p>2001. Protsessori taktsagedused lähevad üle 2 GHz, Tarkvaraturul jätkub Microsofti ülemvõim (ilmub [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP">Windows XP</a>
ja Office XP), kuid Linuxi kontorirakendused muutuvad üha enam tõsiseltvõetavamateks. StarOffice muutub kommertstooteks, millele luuakse vaba paralleelversioon
OpenOffice.org. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X">MacOS X</a> sulatab kokku traditsioonilise Maci ja Unixi.</p>
 
<p>2002: Neti jaoks pole mõneski kohas enam traate vaja. Tshiili ja hiljem ka Venetsueela näitavad MSile viisakalt ust - pretsedent vaba tarkvara
levikuks riiklikul tasandil. Apple otsustab võtta kasutusele Inteli toodetel põhineva riistvaraplatvormi. Eestis toob BSA kampaania "Ära riski -
ela pingevabalt" Windowsilt Linuxile üle nii mõnegi äraehmatatud arvutihuvilise.  Sülearvutid jõuavad tavakasutaja jaoks kättesaadavasse hinnaklassi.
Microsoft alustab peale XP-d järgmise Windowsi väljatöötamist, esialgu lubatakse 2003. aastaks.</p>
 
<p>2003: Wireless-võrgud levivad kiiresti, ka püsiühenduste hulk kasvab - kuid juba on näha ka asja pahupool viiruste ja muu pättvara näol. Madin
vaba tarkvara ümber jätkub - Microsoft kaotab SuSEle laialt vastukaja leidnud konkursi Müncheni linnavalitsuse tarkvaraga varustamiseks, vaba
tarkvara jätkab kiiret levikut ka paljudes arenguriikides. Vastiku liigutusega saab hakkama [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_Group">SCO</a>,
kelle kehv finantsseis viib väljapressimise teele - alustatakse protsessi Linuxi vastu, mille 2.4 kernelis olevat osa koodi SCO intellektuaalomand
(protsessi tegelikuks motiiviks pakutakse soovi panna IBMi end tüli vältimiseks üles ostma). Kaheaastaseks saanud Openoffice.org hakkab
riigiasutustes MS Office'ile tõsist konkurentsi pakkuma (mitmed vastavad otsused alates Vabariigi valitsusest ja lõpetades ülikoolidega).
Aasta lõpus ilmub Linuxi uus 2.6 kernel, millega paraneb tublisti uute väljundseadmete tugi. Aasta algupoole GPRS-vaimustusele tõmbavad
sidefirmad hinnatõusuga vee peale. Uus laiatarbe-Windows viibib (tõsi, 2003 Server ilmub enam-vähem plaanipäraselt), Microsoft leiab vabanduse -
tegelikult teeme suuremaid muudatusi, kui alguses plaanisime. Kaks skandinaavia ärimeest asutavad Tallinnas koos mõnede eestlastest partneritega firma
nimega Skype.</p>
 
<p>2004: SCO'l kipub aur otsa saama (2.4 kernel, kaebuste põhiohver, hakkab ka vaikselt minevikku vajuma). Euroopas käib lahing tarkvarapatentide
ümber, Richard Stallman käib Euroopa-kampaania raames ka Tallinnas. Microsoft teeb Eestile "soodsa pakkumise". Püsiühenduste hinnad jätkavad Eestis
langustrendi. Uued 2.6 kerneliga Linuxi distrod, Sun loob Solarise vaba variandi OpenSolaris. Kauaoodatud Windows XP SP2 sisaldab välja tulles
omajagu auke ja keerab nässu hulga installatsioone (süüdi pole siiski mitte ainult Microsoft, vaid ka kehvade rakenduste tootjad), Longhorn aga
viibib endiselt. Esmakordselt annab tõsise probleemina endast märku võrguräkit - eriti Inglismaal saavad mitmed võrguäriga tegelevad firmad
väljapressimiskirju peamiselt Ida-Euroopa päritolu kuritegelikelt rühmitustelt; nõutakse raha ja keeldujate võrgusüsteemid lubatakse halvata.
Endiselt jätkub sõda viiruste ja rämpspostiga.</p>
 
<p>2005 - Euroopas saavad tarkvarapatentide pooldajad lüüa, EP võtab kogu seaduse päevakorrast maha. Pättvaranuhtlus Windowsi süsteemides jätkub.
Longhorni/Vistat pole endiselt (lubatakse 2006. aasta alguses). Algselt kevadel ilmuma pidanud OpenOffice.org 2.0 lükkub sügisesse. Mac annab Eesti
turul natuke tugevamini märku. Brauseriturul jätkub Firefoxi surve IE-le. Linuxi maailmas teeb kiire tõusu uustulnuk [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_%28operating_system%29">Ubuntu Linux</a>.
Asutatakse YouTube ja mitmed muud populaarsed uue meedia lahendused. Google ostab ära Android Inc'i nimelise firma ja paneb aluse uuele edukale
mobiilseadmete operatsioonisüstemile.</p>
 
<p>2006 - märtsikuus üritavad tarkvarapatentide pooldajad veel üht läbisurumist, seekord "patentide harmoniseerimise" nime all, ent Europarlament
ei lase end enam lollitada. Pahavarauputus Windowsi peal jätkub. [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista">Windows Vista</a> hakkab viimaks valmima. Bill Gates teatab, et loobub kahe aasta
jooksul järk-järgult põhikohaga tööst Microsoftis.. Nicholas Negroponte paneb aluse ühele väga põnevale projektile - arengumaade lastele suunatud
[L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olpc">OLPC</a>-nimelisele arvutile. Paraku jookseb see mõni aasta hiljem Microsofti sekkumise tõttu suuresti liiva.</p>
 
<p>2007 - Vista tuleb aasta algul välja, reaktsioonid on erinevad (hiljem peetakse seda Microsofti ämbriks nr 2 ME järel). Kevade poole oodatakse
Euroopas uut suuremat patendilahingut, see aga jääb esialgu tulemata - aasta sisse aga jäävad mitmed madinad MS OOXML-vormingu ümber, mida too
üritab kõrvuti OpenDocumentiga standardina läbi suruda. MS Office 2007 toob kaasa mitmeid uuendusi, kuid ka tavakasutajate kriitika pälvinud uue
väljanägemise ja uue failivormingu, mis eelmiste samalaadsete liigutustega ettevaatlikuks tehtud tarbijaid üksjagu häirib. Eestit raputavad
aprillimadinad ning nendega kaasnevad DDOS-rünnakud, esialgu pääseb riik suhteliselt kergelt. Aasta lõpupoole osutub MS Vista suurimaks konkurendiks
hoopis Windows XP, mis on saavutanud suure leviku ega taha uuele tulijale kohta vabastada. Linuxi maailmas jätkub Ubuntu valitsemine. Kurikuulus
SCO protsess näib viimaks läbi saavat, firma saab IBM-ilt kohtus lüüa. Google asutab Open Handset Alliance'i - Androidist hakkab kujunema tõsine
kivi Microsofti ja Apple'i kingade sees.</p>
 
<p>2008 - aasta algul jätkub sõdimine OOXML vs ODF, mais aga teatab Microsoft ODF ametlikust toetamisest MS Office 2007 Service Pack 2-s, samas kui
vahepeal suure lärmiga ISO standardiks saanud OOXML jõuab firma kinnitusel täiel määral MS Office'isse alles Office 14-ga (tollane kavandatav
ilmumisaeg 2009 lõpp või 2010 algus). Aprillis ilmub Ubuntu järgmine pika toega versioon 8.04 LTS, mis saab üksjagu kriitikat ebaküpsuse eest.
Bill Gates loobub täistöökohast Microsoftis ja pühendab põhijõu enda heategevusfondile. XP on endiselt Vista suurim komistuskivi, ehkki Microsoft
lõpetab viimaks XP müügi uutele arvutitele. Apple loob MacOS X põhjal uue süsteemi nimega iPhone OS (hiljem iOS), iPhone levib edukalt üle maailma
(sh Eestis). Gruusias toimub sõjaline konflikt, millele eelnevad ja kaasnevad samalaadsed ründed kui need, mis toimusid aasta eest Eestis.</p>
 
<p>2009 - Microsoft tuleb välja [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7">Windows 7</a> nimelise vigade parandusega. MS peavaenlane on
endiselt Google (Androidi turuosa kerkib aastaga paarilt protsendilt paarikümnele). Üle maailma jätkub kemplemine eri teemadel (<em>net neutrality</em>, privaatsus). Hirmus kino [L] <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirate_bay">Pirate Bay</a> ümber.
Sügisel levib uudis SCO elluäratamisest - ilmselt jätkub komöödia veel mõned aastad. IT Kolledzh hakkab arvutiklassides omamaist
[L] <a href="http://www.estobuntu.org">Estobuntut</a> kasutama. Apple loobub PowerPC platvormist ja keskendub Intelile. Asutatakse Eesti IT Akadeemia. E-bay müüb (kahjudega) maha 2/3 varem kallilt
soetatud Skype'ist.</p>
 
<p>2010 - Kurjad hiinlased kräkivad Google'i serveritesse, viimane pahandab ja ähvardab Keskriigist jalga lasta. Taani kehtestab ametlikult
riigisfääris vabad failivormingud. Microsoft üritab CodePlexile vaba tarkvara maailmas laiemat toetust võita - sahistatakse sellestki, et
tulevik võib ärimudelis suuremaid muudatusi tuua. Suni alla neelanud Oracle hakkab mitmete toodete litsentse kinni keerama ja alustab Google'i
vastu kohtuteed, sellega aga pöörduvad mitmed vaba tarkvara projektid firma vastu ning näiteks OpenOffice.org'i põhitegijad otsustavad luua
[L] <a href="http://www.documentfoundation.org/">eraldi sihtasutusel põhineva paralleelversiooni nimega LibreOffice</a>. Mobiilimaailmas on Androidist saanud selge
liider. Vaba tarkvara aktivist ja juuraprofessor Eben Moglen asutab [L] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedombox">Freedomboxi</a> projekti, loomaks
lihtsat ja odavat "demokraatiamasinat" tsensuuri ja erinevat sorti rõhumise vastu.</p>
 
<p>2011 - Windows XP turuosa langeb viimaks alla 50%. Mobiiliturul teevad endiselt ilma Android ja iOS. Microsoft sõlmib partnerlusleppe (~ ostab ära?)
Nokia. Steve Jobs loobub tervise tõttu Apple'i juhtimisest. Linuxi maailmas tekib üksjagu kära graafiliste kasutajaliideste (Unity, Gnome 3)
ümber. LibreOffice 3.4 on Oracle'i OO.o-ga võrreldes selge samm edasi, viimane loobub OO.o ärilisest arendamisest. IT Kolledzhist saab esimene
Linux Professional Institute'i akadeemiline koolituspartner Põhja-Euroopas. </p>


* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACTA ACTA] and its countercampaign in 2012 - while Europe had not experienced 'Facebook revolutions' similar to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring Arab Spring] or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupy_movement Occupy movement], the large-scale public outlash was still remarkable.


== References ==
== References ==
328. rida: 145. rida:




 
=== Additional reading ===
<h2>Viiteid</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/contents.html" The Analytical Engine</a> (ka ka teisi materjale Babbage'i kohta)</li>
<li><a href="http://www.goldenink.com/computersandnetworks.html">http://www.goldenink.com/computersandnetworks.html</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.hitmill.com/computers/computerhx1.html">http://www.hitmill.com/computers/computerhx1.html</a></li>
<li><a href="http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/">http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/</a></li>
<li><a href="http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/History/">http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/History/</a></li>
</ul>
 
=== For extra reading ===


* CARLTON, J. Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders, Harper Paperbacks 1998. ISBN: 0887309658
* CARLTON, J. Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders, Harper Paperbacks 1998. ISBN: 0887309658

Viimane redaktsioon: 27. mai 2012, kell 07:55


What was in the beginning...

... is still under discussion (both in IT and otherwise).

But it is likely that humans started to compute soon after the first days. Besides fingers, sticks and stones, one of the first computing devices was probably the abacus that came into use as early as about 2700-3000BC (different sources offer different dates, e.g. Ifrah[1] suggests 2700BC). Another device that could be considered a sort of computer was the weighing scale used to compare the weight of an object with another. A very interesting find has been the Antikythera mechanism which was recovered only in 1900AD but is thought to be an astronomical computer dating back to 100BC [2].

Some sources[3] suggest that Leonardo da Vinci designed also a mechanical calculator (around 1492-93). The calculating clock by German professor of Hebrew and astronomy Wilhelm Schickard allowed addition and subtraction of up to six-digit numbers - the blueprints of the machine were rediscovered only in the 19th century [4]. On the other hand, the device built by Blaise Pascal - known as the Arithmetic Machine, Pascal's Calculator and Pascaline - has been known for a long time and considered by many the forefather of today's computers. A number of sources suggest the initial motive for building the device to help his father Étienne who in 1639 was appointed the King's commissioner of taxes, thus having to perform a lot of complicated calculations[5].

Older people may still recall a calculating device called the slide rule which was once taught at schools (in the former USSR, it went on up to the 80s - partially due to the electronic calculators being largely unavailable) and is sometimes still seen in the hands of 'old school' engineers. It was invented in 1632 in Oxford by a mathematician and Anglican minister[6] William Oughtred who built his invention on the logarithmic scale by another Englishman, Edmund Gunter. The cursor or runner (the sliding window with a marker) was added by John Robertson in 1775[7] (other sources point to French artillery lieutenant Amédée Mannheim, who is said to give the rule its present form in 1859).

Modern computers use binary number system. In the modern context, it was first formalized by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (who also built his version of calculator called the Stepped Reckoner in 1673), the traces of binary system however lead to a much more ancient time (some sources point to ancient India and a mathematician named Pingala living in the 2nd or 4th century before Christ). An early example of a programmable device can be found in the Jacquard loom by a French weaver and merchant Joseph Marie Jacquard. The loom used punched cards to set the pattern for the textile.

In 1822, English professor Charles Babbage designs the Difference Engine, followed by the larger and more complex Analytical Engine in 1830. Although both machines were not finished, they are considered an important step in the history of computing (some of them have been built lately to prove the validity of their concepts[8]. The Difference Engine was powered by cranking a handle[9], the Analytical Engine was to be steam-powered.

Quite exceptionally for the period, Babbage was assisted by a young lady named Augusta Ada Byron, daughter of the famous English poet and later Countess of Lovelace. Babbage considered her one of the few people understanding his ideas, calling him "the Enchantress of Numbers"[10]. She prepared a set of instructions (algorithm) for the to-be-built Analytical Engine that has been validated by later researchers as correct. Thus she is often considered the first programmer in the world - among other things, the new programming language designed by the US Department of Defense in 1979 was named Ada after her.

In 1837, Samuel Morse invents the Morse code, the first globally used method for data transmission (telegraph in its heyday was perhaps the most extensive unified information system before Internet). Likewise, the punched telegraph tape invented in 1857 by Charles Wheatstone was the first widely used medium for data recording, becoming the forerunner of floppies, CD/DVD records and memory sticks.


The first modern computer

... is a hotly debated issue again. Various suggestions have been made, but four of them seem to be the most common:

  1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) was launched in 1943 at the University of Pennsylvania by a team led by John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert[11].
  2. ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer) was completed a year earlier, in 1942, at the Iowa State College by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry[12]. It is interesting to note that the bitter rivalry between the two machines and their builders spanned over several decades - while ENIAC was initially considered first, the 1973 court case decided in favour of Atanasoff and Berry[13]. On the other hand, several other factors show ENIAC as a more complete machine that also found more use.
  3. The Colossus series were built by British cryptanalysts during the WWII to assist in breaking German codes. Yet, as the ABC, the were not 'complete' computers and were dedicated to a single type of tasks[14].
  4. Z3 and other machines built by Konrad Zuse in Germany. The original Z3 was destroyed in the war and the work of Zuse fell into obscurity. Yet his machines could be perhaps considered the closest to the modern ones[15]. It used the binary system (contrary to the ENIAC's decimal) and Zuse's programming language called Plankalkül is said to contain most of the features of ALGOL, the language from the 50s usually considered the first[16]. On the other hand, Z3 was an electro-mechanical, not an electronic device. Thus, the whole matter is still largely undecided.


The Stone Age

In 1947, one of the best-known anecdotal stories in computing took place - a computer operator (most sources suggest that it was 'Grandma COBOL' or Grace Murray Hopper) searched for a reason of the computer not working, and finding a dead moth between two relay points, taped it to the log book and added the notice "The first actual case of a bug being found". This is considered the birth of the computing terms of "bug" (error), "debug" (finding and fixing errors) and "debugger" (error finding/fixing software[17].

In 1950, Alan Turing formulated the Turing test to determine if a machine is capable of intelligent behaviour[18]. Simply put: the machine is considered intelligent if a human interacting with it cannot determine if he/she is interacting with another human or a machine. During the same year, the first computer named MESM is also built in the Soviet Union. While the Communist countries had a good share of talented mathematicians to provide a theoretical base for technology, they fell seriously behind in the realm of computing - two main reasons being the closedness as well as the overall ignorance (including labelling of many kinds of actual research like psychology and cybernetics 'Western pseudoscience'[19]) and ineffectiveness of the regime[20].

During the fifties, two important technologies contributed towards the miniaturization of computing technology - in 1954, Texas Instruments started to mass-produce [1] (which were actually invented already in 1934) and in 1958, the same company introduces the integrated circuit.

Another noteworthy person who was clearly ahead of his time in the 60s was Douglas Engelbart - the computer mouse was first patented by him in 1963[21] (but became widely used only in the 80s). He went on to develop hypertext (the most common example of the principle nowadays being the Web with its linked pages) and by 1968, an early graphical user interface (which is today used by all widely used computer systems, examples being MS Windows, Apple OS X as well as several desktop systems of variants of Unix and Linux). His 1968 demonstration of then-future computer technologies was later nicknamed The Mother of All Demos[22].

In 1966, IBM develops the first magnetic disk systems. At first, the "hard disks" of the day were huge, cupboard-like devices which gave rise to various 'urban legends' - e.g. the one about walking disk drives[23]. However, some years later in 1971, the company already produced the first generation of the floppy disks, the 8-inch diskette[24].

The year of 1969 has several important landmarks in the history of IT. It can be considered the birth year of Internet, as the first packet switching network (the communication is done by small chunks of information called packages, which travel independently over the network; the principle is a basic one in today's Internet as well) connects four universities in the US[25] - at first, the network becomes known as ARPANET. The AT&T develops the first version of Unix, the first computer operating system being widely portable[26] and eventually becoming a parent for today's two well-known systems in Apple OS X and the Linux family.


The Bronze Age

In 1971 Ray Tomlinson, an engineer at MIT, managed to send a message from one computer to another[27] - his system gets adopted by the ARPANET the next year, becoming what we know today as e-mail.

In 1972, Intel released the first 8-bit microprocessor - with its frequency of 200kHz, it looks antique in comparison with todays 2GHz+ models, yet it was an important step towards personal computers. In the same year, two young men named William Henry Gates III and Paul Allen, create their first company to sell a simple system for traffic density analysis - both the device and the company were called Traf-O-Data. On another front, the newly formed company called Atari releases its first commercial video game titled Pong - while not the first computer game in history, Pong is definitely a forefather of game consoles like Nintendo, Playstation or X-Box. And finally, diskettes started to shrink - the new ones went from 8 inches to mere [2].

Another anecdotal story recalls the first use of real-time text chat over the network - and as so characteristic to the Internet, it was a bit knocked-off by nature: someone at Stanford acted as a mental patient, asking advice from a 'psychiatrist' sitting in Massachusetts[28]...

The landmarks of 1973 include the CP/M, an operating system by Gary Kildall which among other machines was also popular on various computers built in the Eastern Bloc of the day (e.g. the Juku in Estonia); the specification of Ethernet by Bob Metcalfe which is still today the main standard for local computer networks[29]; FTP is devised to move files over the network; IBM releases its first series of hard disks codenamed Winchester - the name would become the generic term for hard disks for some time.

1975 is the birth year of a big player in the world of software. Two guys from Traf-O-Data wrpte their version of the well-known BASIC programming language and renamed their company Microsoft (at first, in the form of 'Micro-Soft'). They also created a substantial controversy by starting to ask money for every copy of their software, a concept totally alien back then. Bill's attempt to convince users that the new model works well was not considered very successful[30]. Two signs from that year indicated the growing mainstreaming of computers - a retail store chain specializing on computers ('Computer Store') was founded, just as the first specialized magazine titled "Byte". ARPANET opens the first mailing lists[31].

Apple was founded just a year later in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. While Gates and Allen started with and stayed mostly on software, Apple started out as a hardware company selling the do-it-yourself type Apple I.

It perhaps noteworthy that even if Microsoft Excel is nearly synonymous with spreadsheet software for many people, the first spreadsheet clearly predates Microsoft system - the first was VisiCalc, released in 1979. The same year gave us also Usenet newsgroups[32] and first MUDs[33].

While Microsoft definitely has many friends, the controversies surrounding the company started early on as well. There are several different story versions about the 1980-81 birth of MS DOS, the first best-selling software by Microsoft - the official version by the company[34] recalls buying the system from the Seattle Computer Products, some more critical voices suggest far less favourable scenarios[35]. On the hardware front, Sony released the highly successful [3.5-inch diskette], and in co-operation with Philips, develops the first version of CD audio standard.

Microsoft's historical dominance started with their luck (or business skill, depending on the view) to strike a deal with IBM to supply operating system for their new |http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibm_5150 Personal Computer Model 5150], which went on to be the first of the whole generation of personal computers. Among three candidates, IBM chose MS-DOS and the huge sales of the computer translated into a huge success for the operating system vendor.

The Iron Age

1982 was the year of rapid spread for the IBM's PC - an important reason being the emergence of the PC compatibles or "PC clones". Due to some technical factors, IBM could not withhold others from copying the design - the fact that was initially considered a curse but came out a blessing. At the time of its birth, IBM PC was one of the many kinds of personal computers available, by 1986 the market share of PC compatibles had exceeded 50%[36]. A number of technically more advanced designed were forced out of the market. This could be seen an important lesson about the power of open standards. The same year, Mouse Systems introduced their mouse for PCs, yet it remained a little more than curiosity for several years (largely up to the emergence of Microsoft Windows 3.0 in 1990; in contrast, Apple made mouse an integral part of their systems remarkably earlier). ARPANET extends to the United Kingdom and Norway, becoming Internet. Scott Fahlman proposes using emoticons (also known as smileys) to denote emotions in online texts[37] (there are also differing views on the origin).

In 1983, IBM produced a next model of PCs, the 5160 or PC XT, which was the first model with a (typically 10MB) hard disk. Apple counters with Lisa and IIe - also, one of their trademark models, the Macintosh (giving its name to all later Macs) was released about then (different sources mention either 1983 or 1984). Microsoft announced the initial version of a new environment named Windows - yet it was released only in 1985 and became practically usable (more or less so) with the version 3.0 in 1990.

It is noteworthy that while there was no Windows, there were already several providers of what we nowadays know as office software - e.g. Lotus 1-2-3, WordPerfect, Multi-Tool Word and others. Yet in the realm of word processing, perhaps the most successful software product of the early 80s was WordStar - it was originally designed for CP/M, but due to good portability took soon over the PC market as well[38].

In general it was the time of entrenchment of the proprietary, commercial and closed software model. Yet there was an 'old school hacker' named Richard Stallman who decided to rebel against it - at the end of 1983, he announced a plan to re-write the widely used Unix operating system and give it freely away to anyone interested[39]. While many people shrugged on the idea, he was determined and launched the GNU project which became the foundation of the Free Software movement. This topic will be covered more thoroughly in the next lectures.

Finally, Fidonet was also born that year - the dial-in (BBS) based network which was especially popular in places where local phone calls were inexpensive or free and vice versa, computer access was restricted (including the former Eastern Bloc). Only when the Internet became the household word at the end of the century, did it back down but is maintained by enthusiasts till today.

1984 was the beginning of mass-produced CD-ROMs and IBM released PC AT which was a substantial improvement over the XT (from the software point of view, the IBM compatible computers have not changed much since then - still, the hardware side as well as the overall performance have changed dramatically). Massachusetts Institute of Technology releases the first version of X Window System - interestingly, the Unix standard of graphical user interface predates Microsoft Windows by several years. In Moscow, Alexey Pajitnov wrote one of the most popular computer games - Tetris. It was followed by a multitude of both legal and not-so-legal copies, one of them which created a real boom among Estonian computer users at the end of the 80s (Tallinn University of Technology even organised a championship tournament!) was aptly named 'Totrus' (Estonian for 'folly', 'stupidity', also 'rubbish').

By the mid-80s, Internet had matured to be a widespread, yet mostly academic and non-profit (commercial activities like advertisement were prohibited) entity, with e-mail, Telnet, FTP and Usenet as its main services.

In 1987, Microsoft and IBM teamed up and announced a new operating system named OS/2. The system can be considered a classic example of a superior product falling victim to the market manipulations - after some years, Microsoft backed out with most of the know-how obtained going into their new Windows. While IBM kept OS/2, it was thoroughly hampered by the rights on some parts which belonged to Microsoft, and was never able to really take off.

In 1989, CERN in Switzerland is connected to the Internet. A staff member named Tim Berners-Lee starts to work on an idea of scientific documents linked together as hypertext - today we know it as the Web[40].

1990 is the release year of the first version of MS Windows that was stable enough for wider public - Windows 3.0. Still, its moderate success was surpassed by far by its very popular successor, 3.1. The University of California, Berkeley introduced the BSD Unix system family. Since then, they have been a rather significant niche systems since (especially in business server systems, due to a liberal licence; OpenBSD is also considered one of the most secure systems in its default configuration), but are also notable for forming the base of Apple OS X (Apple built a commercial "upper layer" on Darwin, a variant of BSD).

The Internet Age

1991 was another landmark year. Tim Berners-Lee published his method of hypertext (notably under public domain - had he chosen otherwise, saying that the world would have been different is not an exaggeration). In the United States, the National Science Foundation lifts the ban on the commercial use of Internet[41] - it makes possible a lot of new services, but also opens the door to spam and cybercrime. A student of the University of Helsinki in Finland named Linus Torvalds announces his "new Unix-like operating system" hobby project[42], later known as Linux.

The next year, Microsoft releases one of their most successful systems which makes Bill Gates the richest person in the US: Windows 3.1, followed by the success of the enterprise-oriented NT series. In Internet, the Web technology started its explosive growth. In 1994, Mark Andreessen and Jim Clark founded Netscape and created their browser of the same name, a successor to the first widely used web browser Mosaic.

For awhile, Microsoft downplayed the role of the Internet, preferring to focus on their own proprietary Microsoft Network. By 1995, they had learned of their mistake and decided to catch up[43]. At first trying unsuccessfully to convince Netscape to divide the market[44], they obtained a Mosaic-derived browser from Spyglass and developed it into the [Internet Explorer http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer]. Initially not very successful, the version 2.0 was distributed for free (Netscape was only free for non-commercial use) and launched the so-called browser wars which were finally won by Microsoft in 1997 when Netscape was acquired by AOL. However, the win resulted in several years of monopoly charges for Microsoft and the open-sourcing of Mozilla (initially the codename for Netscape's development version) giving rise to Firefox and several other browsers.

1995 was a successful year for Microsoft, who released Windows 95 as well as MS Office 95 and Windows NT 3.51. Yet in the same year, Bob Young and Marc Ewing found possibly the most successful commercial Linux company, Red Hat. In the hardware world, it is the birth year of two well-known connector standards: USB and IEEE 1394, also known as FireWire (used extensively by Apple).

While Linux established itself as viable server system soon enough (especially as the software set known as LAMP used to power a large share of web servers since mid-90s), it did not become as successful as a desktop system. In late nineties however, a step to that direction was made by the foundation of the two major desktop environments in GNOME and KDE.

In 1998, Microsoft releases its next operating system, the Windows 98. Apple returned to the spotlight with their iMac, a novel design combining the case and the monitor of the personal computer. Mandrake (later Mandriva) is the first Linux distribution specifically meant for desktop use (at first using mostly KDE as its environment). The [3] raised briefly the hopes of many people, but the dreams came true only for a small minority.

In the turn of the year 1999/2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000 - despite extensive promotion, the initial reception was somewhat disappointing[45], forcing the company to follow up with Service Pack 1 rather soon. Moreover, the desktop-oriented replacement for Windows 98, the Windows ME, has been considered by many the worst release of Windows[46], forcing the company to speed up the development of the next release. However, the 2001 release of Windows XP, being one of the most successful releases, set the company back on the tracks.

The new century began well for Microsoft, having overcome the legal hassles and successfully released Windows XP and MS Office 2000. However, its competitors did not relax either - Apple developed their new Unix-based operating system family in OS X, and for the first time, Linux software displayed more serious ambition on desktop as well - the WordPerfect Office 2000 was the first major office suite released for Linux among other platforms, and Sun started to distribute their freshly acquired StarOffice 5.2 as a free download[47]. Moreover, in late 2000 Sun split their StarOffice into a commercial offering of the same name and a community project title OpenOffice.org (nowadays distributed as Apache OpenOffice), the latter becoming an usable solution in less than a year.

The New Millennium

The first decade of the century feature among other things

  • the wireless boom - wireless networks spread fast both as commercial offerings and as public services.
  • the rise of free and open-source software in developing countries - especially prominent examples were Chile, Peru and Venezuela[48].
  • laptop computers and notebooks becoming affordable for 'average people'
  • rapid spread of affordable broadband Internet connections
  • the dark side of networking - hijacking the computers of 'ordinary users' becomes a major problem
  • various regulative legislation proposed, some of which are considered threatening to overall freedom
  • recent developments point towards the 'post-desktop' era - stationary computers are outnumbered by mobile devices (laptops, notebooks, tablets and smartphones).

Some interesting examples from the last decade:

  • The SCO lawsuit 2003-2011 (could even continue in the future) - the claim by SCO Group that Linux kernel 2.4 contains some code belonging to them. Most sources agree that the motivation was to force IBM to buy out the company. Interesting factors include
    • for the better part of the suit, the software in question has been outdated and replaced by new 2.6 kernel series (i.e. is not in use anymore)
    • throughout the process, the suitor has not managed to identify the exact code in question
    • from time to time, the suitor appeared to have received new funding to continue the process
  • The software patent war in European Parliament 2004-2005 - the controversal EU directive proposal about whether software is patentable or not bounced several times between the European Parliament (majority opposing it) and the European Commission (supporting it), each time changing slightly. Finally, the proposal was overwhelmingly rejected in July 2005.
  • Ubuntu - starting in 2004, the Linux distribution backed by Mark Shuttleworth and Canonical Ltd. had a rapid rise to the top soon after its initial release. With a steady release cycle (twice a year) and orientation to ordinary computer users, it became 'THE Linux' for many and at times, was able to challenge the established desktop operating systems by Microsoft and Apple. However, some recent development have resulted in controversy and alienated some of its user base.
  • Netbooks - since 2007, the small, light and cheap notebook computers mostly meant for e-mail, notetaking and simple web surfing. It is interesting to note that they were initially dominated by Linux - due to the fact that the Microsoft operating system of the day (Vista) was unable to run on them. Microsoft reacted by extending the support of XP until their new release (Windows 7) with lesser requirements on hardware arrived. Recently, they are increasingly being challenged by tablets.
  • The Android operating system developed by Google-led Open Handset Alliance since 2007 and together with Apple iOS, successfully bridging the gaps between the phones, larger handheld devices and notebooks (a good example of the latter is the Asus Eee Pad Transformer).
  • iPad - first released in 2010, it has defined the tablet computer for many users.
  • ACTA and its countercampaign in 2012 - while Europe had not experienced 'Facebook revolutions' similar to the Arab Spring or the Occupy movement, the large-scale public outlash was still remarkable.

References

  1. ↑ IFRAH, G. The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, John Wiley & Sons 2001. ISBN 0471396710
  2. ↑ http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/overview
  3. ↑ http://history-computer.com/MechanicalCalculators/Pioneers/Leonardo.html
  4. ↑ http://history-computer.com/MechanicalCalculators/Pioneers/Schickard.html
  5. ↑ http://history-computer.com/People/PascalBio.html
  6. ↑ http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Oughtred.html
  7. ↑ http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/slidrul.htm
  8. ↑ http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/
  9. ↑ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lcedn6fxgS0
  10. ↑ http://www.well.com/~adatoole/PoeticalScience.htm
  11. ↑ http://ftp.arl.mil/~mike/comphist/eniac-story.html
  12. ↑ http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257001829419648
  13. ↑ http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/cbi00001.html
  14. ↑ http://www.ivorcatt.com/47c.htm
  15. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20080318184915/http://www.crash-it.com/crash/index.php?page=73
  16. ↑ http://www.zib.de/zuse/Inhalt/Programme/Plankalkuel/Plankalkuel-Report/Plankalkuel-Report.htm
  17. ↑ http://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/hopper.htm
  18. ↑ http://loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html
  19. ↑ http://www.cs.ut.ee/~varmo/tday-polva/tyugu-slides.pdf
  20. ↑ http://hrsbstaff.ednet.ns.ca/debcampbell/01-HisPlan12/3-GF/EspionnageLabo/spiesInsideKGBSite.htm
  21. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1633972.stm
  22. ↑ http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2008/12/dayintech_1209
  23. ↑ http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/W/walking-drives.html
  24. ↑ http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/storage/storage_chrono20.html
  25. ↑ MOSCHOVITIS, C.J.P., POOLE, H., SCHUYLER, T., SENFT, T.M. History of the Internet: A Chronology, 1843 to the Present. ABC-Clio 1999, ISBN: 1576071189
  26. ↑ http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/hist.html
  27. ↑ http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm
  28. ↑ http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm
  29. ↑ http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96
  30. ↑ http://www.blinkenlights.com/classiccmp/gateswhine.html
  31. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm
  32. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm
  33. ↑ http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html
  34. ↑ http://www.patersontech.com/Dos/Micronews/paterson04_10_98.htm
  35. ↑ http://www.vanwensveen.nl/rants/microsoft/IhateMS_1.html
  36. ↑ http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2005/12/total-share.ars/1
  37. ↑ http://web.archive.org/web/20071012051803/http://www.cnn.com/2007/TECH/09/18/emoticon.anniversary.ap/index.html
  38. ↑ http://www.wordstar.org/index.php/wordstar-history
  39. ↑ http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html
  40. ↑ http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html
  41. ↑ http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/
  42. ↑ http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/msg/b813d52cbc5a044b?dmode=source&pli=1
  43. ↑ http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/exhibits/20.pdf
  44. ↑ http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/msdoj/transcript/summaries1.html
  45. ↑ http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/it-strategy/2000/02/14/bugfest-win2000-has-63000-defects-2076967/
  46. ↑ http://www.pcworld.com/article/125772-2/the_25_worst_tech_products_of_all_time.html
  47. ↑ http://www.linuxplanet.com/linuxplanet/reviews/1844/1
  48. ↑ http://www.brod.com.br/files/helsinki.pdf


Additional reading

  • CARLTON, J. Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania, and Business Blunders, Harper Paperbacks 1998. ISBN: 0887309658
  • FREIBERGER, P., SWAINE, M. Fire in the Valley: The Making of The Personal Computer, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill 2000. ISBN: 0071358927
  • GATES, B. The Road Ahead. 2nd Revised ed. Pearson Elt 2008. ISBN: 140587932
  • ISAACSON, W. Steve Jobs. Simon & Schuster 2011. ISBN: 1451648537
  • LEVY, S. Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution - 25th Anniversary Edition. O'Reilly 2010. ISBN: 1449388396
  • MOODY, G. Rebel Code: Linux And The Open Source Revolution. Basic Books 2002. ISBN: 0738206709
  • VISE, D., MAISEED, M. The Google Story: For Google's 10th Birthday. Delacorte Press 2008. ISBN: 0385342721
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