The Story of Cyberspace: erinevus redaktsioonide vahel

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UNDER DEVELOPMENT




== For starters ==
== For starters ==


If we ask a random guy about Internet, chances are that his reply would be  in the vein of "a cool thing for hanging with friends, reading news and downloading stuff - it was built sometime around 1990 or so". Somebody would probably mention just the F-word (Facebook, that is).
If we ask a random guy about Internet, chances are that his reply would be  in the vein of "a cool thing for hanging around with friends, reading news and downloading stuff - it was built sometime around 1990 or so". Somebody would probably mention just the F-word (Facebook, that is).


But Internet is older, larger, and more colourful and controversial than just that. It is a communication channel, a mass medium, a fantasy world and a free-for-all arena. As any powerful tool, it can be used for good and evil alike - as we can see later, it can help people in sometimes surprising ways, yet give ground to nasty amounts of superficiality, irresponsibility and cruelty.  
But Internet is older, larger, and more colourful and controversial than just that. It is a communication channel, a mass medium, a fantasy world and a free-for-all arena. As any powerful tool, it can be used for good and evil alike - as we can see later, it can help people in sometimes surprising ways, yet give ground to nasty amounts of superficiality, irresponsibility and cruelty.  
The term 'cyberspace' is actually older than Internet, as it was used by two Danish artists already in the 1960s<ref>http://www.kunstkritikk.com/kommentar/the-reinvention-of-cyberspace/</ref>. The current meaning entered the public knowledge through the writings of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gibson William Gibson] (most famously used in ''Neuromancer''). While the concept is actually wider than just Internet, it is often used for Internet - especially to stress the social aspect rather than technical. Today's Internet is more and more defined as a social space.




== Main services ==
== Main services ==


Starting with the most obvious that is often mistaken for 'Internet' by commoners - the World Wide Web or WWW, the hypertext network. What started out as a plain text system suitable for connecting research documents, gradually added new possibilities in graphics and multimedia, largely taking over many roles of previously used services (e.g. as a communication channel - blogs, wikis and social networking sites are technically all just web pages. Or information search - old services like Archie or Gopher were gradually replaced by Google and others). As the backbone of today's information society, Web interfaces can be used to set up home electronics, do car diagnostics or sell stock options.
Starting with the most obvious that is often mistaken for 'Internet' by commoners - the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web World Wide Web] or WWW, the hypertext network. What started out as a plain text system suitable for connecting research documents, gradually added new possibilities in graphics and multimedia, largely taking over many roles of previously used services (e.g. as a communication channel - blogs, wikis and social networking sites are technically all just web pages. Or information search - old services like Archie or Gopher were gradually replaced by Google and others). As the backbone of today's information society, Web interfaces can be used to set up home electronics, do car diagnostics or sell stock options.
 
Then there is the real oldtimer - E-mail. Born half by accident as a side product of data transfer and remote login, it was the main service of Internet for a long time and has not given up much of that - an e-mail address on a calling card is as self-explanatory as a phone number. In addition, it gave rise to early Internet communities in the form of mailing lists, and later, Usenet.


Sometimes people say "But how was stuff downloaded before the Web?". Using FTP, of course. While it is integrated with Web interfaces in many modern systems, it is still in use as a separate service as well - albeit mostly in its newer, more secure forms (SFTP, FTPS). In addition, P2P services can also considered descendants of FTP<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing</ref>.
Then there is the real oldtimer - E-mail. Born half by accident as a side product of data transfer and remote login, it was the main service of Internet for a long time and has not given up much of that - an e-mail address on a calling card is as self-explanatory as a phone number. In addition, it gave rise to early Internet communities in the form of mailing lists, and later, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet Usenet].


Remote access protocols like Telnet or rlogin also date back to the era of room-sized computers - computers were scarce and expensive, many facilities had to use more powerful machines remotely over distance. With the advent of PCs, Telnet allowed access to large Unix machines from a home PC, many applications that nowadays use the Web were initially available over Telnet (e.g. search engines). Telnet was also the way to log into early chatrooms, talkers and MUDs. Just like FTP, more secure alternatives like SSH have largely replaced original Telnet by now.
Sometimes people ask "But how was stuff downloaded before the Web?". Using [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol FTP], of course. While it is integrated with Web interfaces in many modern systems, it is still in use as a separate service as well - albeit mostly in its newer, more secure forms (SFTP, FTPS). In addition, P2P services can also considered descendants of FTP<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing</ref>.


Usenet was the pre-web standard of online discussions - for a time, there was a newsgroup for practically everything.
Remote access protocols like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet Telnet] or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rlogin rlogin] also date back to the era of room-sized computers - computers were scarce and expensive, many facilities had to use more powerful machines remotely over distance. With the advent of PCs, Telnet allowed access to large Unix machines from a home PC, many applications that nowadays use the Web were initially available over Telnet (e.g. search engines).  Telnet was also the way to log into early chatrooms, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talker talkers] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD MUDs]. Just like FTP, more secure alternatives like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell SSH] have largely replaced original Telnet by now.


Finally, there was a number of services allowing real-time communication between users. From the Talk utility in Unix that allowed two users to chat to IRC to various "messengers" (ICQ, AIM, MSN...) to today's web-based chatrooms.
Usenet was the pre-web standard of online discussions - for a time, there was a newsgroup for practically everything and while most of them still exist, they have been pushed aside by newer web-based alternatives. Today, the real wealth of Usenet lies in its archives that offer valuable insight into the pre-web era of Internet (for example, the message of Tim Berners-Lee announcing his novel hypertext system<ref>https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/comp.sys.next.announce/avWAjISncfw</ref> or of Linus Torvalds announcing Linux<ref>https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awb/linux.history.html</ref> both appeared first on Usenet).


Finally, there was a number of services allowing real-time communication between users. From talk (an utility in Unix that allowed two users to chat) to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat IRC] to various "messengers" (ICQ, AIM, MSN...) to Skype to today's web-based chatrooms.


== Childhood ==


Various authors count different points in history as the beginning of Internet. Some (like Gregory R. Gromov<ref>http://www.netvalley.com/intval1.html</ref>) consider [http://www.atlantic-cable.com the Atlantic cable] of 1866 as the starting point (the first attempt was actually made already in 1858, but it worked just for a couple of days - the cables from 1866 were in use for more than 100 years). Others like Moschovitis ''et al''<ref>https://books.google.ee/books/about/History_of_the_Internet.html?id=Hu5SAAAAMAAJ&hl=en</ref> mention U.S. radio enthusiasts from WWI (likely the first use of '[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/hacker.html hacker]' in technological context, plus [http://showcase.netins.net/web/akline/1927act.htm the U.S. Radio Act from 1927], the ancestor of today's data protection laws, was partially motivated by the need to get the rules in place). Yet others start the history from the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 in 1957 that raised a lot of alarm in the U.S. and among other countermeasures, greatly boosted defense-oriented research that led to the development of first packet networks.
== Prehistory ==


Various authors count different points in history as the beginning of Internet. Some (like Gregory R. Gromov<ref>http://www.netvalley.com/intval1.html</ref>) consider [http://www.atlantic-cable.com the Atlantic cable] of 1866 as the starting point (the first attempt was actually made already in 1858, but it worked just for a couple of days - the cables from 1866 were in use for more than 100 years). Others like Moschovitis ''et al''<ref>https://books.google.ee/books/about/History_of_the_Internet.html?id=Hu5SAAAAMAAJ&hl=en</ref> mention U.S. radio enthusiasts from WWI (likely the first use of '[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/hacker.html hacker]' in technological context, plus [http://showcase.netins.net/web/akline/1927act.htm the U.S. Radio Act from 1927], the ancestor of today's data protection laws, was partially motivated by the need to get the rules in place). Yet others start the history from the Soviets launching [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1 Sputnik 1] in 1957 that raised a lot of alarm in the U.S. and among other countermeasures, greatly boosted defense-oriented research that led to the development of first [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching packet switching networks].


Some other waypoints include
* 1938 - the first 'media bubble' when New York aired one of the first audio plays, Herbert G. Wells' ''The War of the Worlds'', performed by the suggestive voice of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orson_Welles Orson Welles]. The description of Martians invading New York was so vivid that the resulting panic was overwhelming and some people were narrowly kept away from killing themselves<ref>http://www.capitalcentury.com/1938.html</ref>.  While commercial broadcasting was spreading rapidly in the U.S., there was but little regulation.
* 1945 - Vannevar Bush writes an article titled ''As We May Think'', suggesting [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex Memex], a hypertext system using microfilm.<ref>http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush</ref>
* 1947 - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Hopper Grace Murray Hopper] examined a malfunctioning Mark II computer and discovered a moth that had been stuck and caused the problem. The culprit was taped into the logbook accompanied by the description "The first actual case of a bug being found", and the terms of 'bug', 'debug' and 'debugger' got their start.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btmurr.html</ref>
* 1948 - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener Norbert Wiener] publishes ''Cybernetics'', the book that founded a new discipline of the same name.
* 1956 - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McCarthy_%28computer_scientist%29 John McCarthy] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvin_Minsky Marvin Minsky] chair the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dartmouth_Conferences Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence] where the exponential development of technology was first proposed (also, the term 'artificial intelligence' was coined around the same time).<ref>http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html</ref>
* 1960 - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._R._Licklider J.C.R. Licklider] publishes a paper titled ''Man-Computer Symbiosis'' that predicted many things visible in today's information society.<ref>http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html</ref>
* 1962 - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Engelbart Douglas Engelbart] publishes ''Augmenting Human Intelligence: A Conceptual Framework''.<ref>http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html</ref> - Engelbart (who is also credited as the inventor of computer mouse and graphical user interface) was among the first pioneers who saw computers more than just powerful calculators.


Teised (Moschovitis jt)
mainivad tänase küberkultuuri esiisadena ameerika raadioamatööre I maailmasõja päevilt
- sõna <a href="http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/entry/hacker.html">"häkker"</a>
tähistas esialgu just neid tehnikafänne, kes USA armee raadiosidet pealt
kuulasid ja segasid; ka tänaste andmekaitseseaduste esivanem, USA 1927. aasta <a href="http://showcase.netins.net/web/akline/1927act.htm">Radio Act</a>,
sätestas ühe peamise eesmärgina nende ohjeldamise. Kolmandad leiavad, et kogu protsessi
vallandas NL poolt 1957. aastal kosmosesse saadetud "Sputnik 1", mis põhjustas ameeriklastes
paraja ärevuse ja sundis tunduvalt forsseerima teadusuuringuid.</p>


<p>Tänasele Internetile iseloomulikke nähtusi ja termineid võime sellest varasemast ajastust leida
== Early days ==
teisigi. Mõned näited Moschovitise raamatust:<p>
<ul>
<li>1938  -  esimene suur meediamull. <a href="http://www.capitalcentury.com/1938.html">
Orson Wellesi kuuldemäng "Maailmade sõja" ainetel</a> kirjeldas marslaste sissetungi
New Jersey osariiki, millele järgnes kohutav paanika.  30. aastateks oli USA-s välja
kujunenud kommertsraadio, puudusid aga selle kasutamise reeglid.
<li>1947- Grace Murray Hopper, Harvardi Mark II programmeerija, leiab arvuti vigaste
tulemuste põhjuse - <a href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btmurr.html">
arvuti releedesse kinnijäänud koi</a>. Logisse läheb sissekanne "The first actual case of a bug
being found" - alguse saab uus termin (maakeeli ka "puuk"; lisandusid ka vastavad terminid
puukide eemaldamise (debugging) ja selleks ettenähtud vahendi (debugger) jaoks).
</ul>


<p>Veel võib tänase Interneti mitmeid ideid leida näiteks Vannevar Bushi visionäärlikust
Most authors are in agreement that the actual history of Internet started after the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 which resulted in significant boost to defense-oriented research in the US. The National Defense Education Act<ref>http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/ndea/ndea.html</ref> was a state-financed student loan programme to train scientists for the military - in 1959 the total was USD 5 billion, rising to 13 billion by 1964. Among the organizations funded from the programme was also the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) that was tasked to find a counter to a possible attack from space<ref>http://www.dei.isep.ipp.pt/docs/arpa--1.html</ref>. To achieve that, they started to research a possible all-encompassing defense network that was to keep working 'half dead', after the Soviet attack (some sources contest it, but a majority seems to agree).
kirjutisest <a href="http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush" title="Vannevar Bush - As We May Think">As We May Think"</a>, mis ilmus 1945. aastal ja kus ta nägi ette Memexi-nimelist
süsteemi, mis põhines mikrofilmitehnoloogial, kuid mille toimemehhanism sarnanes paljus
tänase veebi omale. Norbert Wieneri 1948. aastal ilmunud raamat <em>Cybernetics</em> pani aluse
uudsele teadusele - küberneetikale, mis ühendas erinevate olemasolevate teadusharude lähenemisi kommunikatsiooni ja
juhtimise erinevate probleemide uurimisel. 1956. aasta suvel hilisemate arvutivaldkonna pioneeride
John McCarthy ja Marvin Minsky eestvõttel toimunud <a href="http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html"
title="Dartmouthi konverents">Dartmouthi tehisintellektikonverentsil</a> sõnastati esmakordselt väide
tehnoloogia eksponentsiaalsest arengust (ka "tehisintellekti" mõiste pärineb samast ajast). Veel
üheks oluliseks algaegade sündmuseks peetakse J.C.R. Licklideri 1960. aasta artiklit <a href="http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html"
title="Man-Computer Symbiosis">Man-Computer Symbiosis</a> ning meile juba tuttava Douglas Engelbarti
kaks aastat hiljem ilmunud tööd <a href="http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html"
title="Augmenting Human Intelligence">Augmenting Human Intelligence: A Conceptual Framework</a>.</p>


<p>Praktilise alguse koha pealt on aga enamik autoreid ühel meelel - selleks loetakse
The initial theory was formulated by Leonhard Kleinrock in MIT in 1961<ref>http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/</ref> and practical implementation proposed by Paul Baran in 1964<ref>http://www.rand.org/publications/RM/RM3420/</ref>. The main idea was to divide traffic into small chunks (called packets) that would be sent over the network independently from each other. The first network connected four computers located in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Stanford and Utah - the network was later named ARPAnet. The first attempts were rocky at best - there is a well-known description of how 'login' was sent letter by letter over the network and crashed the system at 'g'.<ref>http://livinginternet.com/i/ii_arpanet.htm</ref>
"Sputniku" stardi järgset USA riigikaitsealaste uuringute forsseerimist 50. aastate lõpul.
1958 võeti vastu <a href="http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/ndea/ndea.html">National Defense
Education Act</a> - riigi finantseeritud õppelaenuprogramm kaitsesfääri teadlaste väljaõppeks.
1959. aastal eraldati selleks 5 miljardit dollarit, 1964. aastaks oli summa kerkinud 13
miljardile. Selle programmi abil rahastatud organisatsioonide hulka kuulus ka <a href="http://www.dei.isep.ipp.pt/docs/arpa--1.html">Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA)</a> - USA tollaste parimate ajude ühendus, mis pidi leidma
tehnoloogilise kaitsekilbi kardetud kosmilise rünnaku vastu (tõsi, varsti lisandus NASA ja
tekkis võistlus finantside pärast, mis ARPA võimalusi mõnevõrra kärpis). Alustati uuringuid
erinevaid kaitsekompleksi osi ühendava võrgu loomiseks, mille tähtsaimaks, kohe alguses sisse
programmeeritud omaduseks oleks võime "töötada ka poolsurnuna" - võrk pidi suutma säilitada oma
funktsionaalsuse ka NL raketirünnaku järgselt. Leidub ka allikaid, kes eitavad militaarse
idee põhirolli Võrgu loomises, kuid enamik tundub siiski seda mõtet pooldavat.</p>


<p>Lahendus, mille esmase teooria formuleeris <a href="http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/">dr. Leonard
(A side note: while the early days of Internet included famous professors and researchers, the main impetus came from the practical implementors - young, passionate and geeky enthusiasts. In addition to the technology, these people also founded the free-minded, decidedly anti-authoritarian cyberculture - all this taking place during the 'Hippie age' likely played a role too.)
Kleinrock</a> MIT-is 1961. aastal ning algse praktilise realisatsiooni esitas <a href="http://www.rand.org/publications/RM/RM3420/">Paul Baran</a> 1964. aastal, seisnes
lühidalt järgmises.  Kogu sideseansi sisu hakitakse tükkideks (mida hiljem hakatakse nimetama
pakettideks). Iga tükk, millele on lisatud sihtkoha aadress, läbib paljudest arvutitest ja
liinidest koosneva sidekanali. Tükid orienteeruvad võrgus iseseisvalt ning seepärast ei
katkesta osade jaamade väljalangemine veel sidet. Sihtkohta jõudnud tükid pannakse uuesti
kokku algseks sõnumiks. </p>


<p>Päris arvutivõrguni jõuti 1969. aastal -  omavahel ühendatud arvutid asusid Los Angelesis,
A major challenge was to find a way for different computer types to interact over the network. A set of protocols was created that used layered approach with lower layers dealing with physical connection and networking, upper ones with various applications. The Transmission Control Program (later renamed Transmission Control Protocol or TCP) was created in 1974<ref>http://community.roxen.com/developers/idocs/rfc/rfc675.html</ref> followed in 1978 by Internet Protocol, forming the foundation of Internet, TCP/IP<ref>http://www.rad.com/networks/1997/nettut/protocols.html</ref>
Santa Barbaras, Stanfordis ja Utah's. Võrku hakati nimetama ARPAnetiks. Sellest ajast pärineb
ka tuntud <a href="http://livinginternet.com/i/ii_arpanet.htm">kirjeldus</a>, kuidas California
Ülikooli (UCLA) professor Kleinrock ja tema tudengid üritasid end Stanfordi arvutisse logida:</p>
<blockquote>"Panime ühenduse käima", meenutab prof. Kleinrock, "sisestasime tähe L ja
küsisime kolleegidelt: "Kas te näete L-i?"  "Jah, näeme", tuli vastus. Siis sisestasime
O ja küsisime jälle: "Kas te näete O-d?"  "Jah, näeme", vastati jällegi.  Siis sisestasime
G ja masin kukkus kokku..."</blockquote>


<p>Hipiaja kõrgpunktis sündinud  ARPAnet kujunes paljus välja tänu noorte, "karvaste" ja
In 1969-70, two of the major tools are born, the Unix operating system and C programming language<ref>http://uwsg.iu.edu/usail/concepts/unixhx.html</ref>. The Alohanet in Hawaii, built in 1970, became one of the first wireless networks. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson succeeds in sending a text message from one computer to another, later also writing a basic softwarne for sending e-mail<ref>http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm</ref>. The @-sign comes to use from teletype<ref>http://www.herodios.com/herron_tc/atsign.html</ref>. In the University of Illinois, Michael S. Hart starts [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg Project Gutenberg], the first digital library (for a long time, it was just a collection of electronic texts, but in recent years it has greatly increased its importance as a source of free e-books). In 1972, the first long-distance text chat occurs (what is especially interesting: both sides were actually what we would call 'bots' today) - true to the spirit of the times, it emulates a 'psychiatrist' in Massachusetts advising a 'patient' in Stanford. <ref>http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm</ref>, <ref>http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/06/when-parry-met-eliza-a-ridiculous-chatbot-conversation-from-1972/372428/</ref>. The Telnet protocol for remote connections is developed in the same year.
hakkajate entusiastide tööle. Ehkki töös osales nimekaid professoreid, andsid ARPAnetile
ja ka hilisemale Internetile näo just õpipoisid - peamiselt tudengid, kes väsimatult uusi
ideid genereerisid ja neid katsetasid. Siit on alguse saanud Internetti kui omalaadset
ühiskonda iseloomustav vabameelsus, vastuseis igasugusele kontrollimispüüdele (neid võrku
iseloomustavaid nähtusi käsitleme pikemalt järgmistes loengutes).</p>


<p>Üheks põhiprobleemiks oli leida viis, kuidas panna võrgus olevad erinevad arvutid omavahel
In 1973, the network expands to the UK and Norway (thus, the term 'Internet' first appears). The doctoral thesis of Bob Metcalfe describes the networks later known as Ethernet.<ref>http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/</ref>. The first specification of FTP is published. At [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign UIUC], software called Notes is added to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLATO_%28computer_system%29 PLATO] system, allowing posting texts online - this is considered a forefather of various online systems.<ref>http://bosco.cso.uiuc.edu/novanet/History.asp</ref>. Bob Metcalfe publishes RFC 602 titled "The Stockings Were Hung by the Chimney with Care", that was the first public treatise on dangers coming from weak passwords<ref>http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc602.html</ref> (unfortunately, people have not grown any wiser since).
suhtlema. Loodi rida protokolle (NCP jt), mille juures hakati kasutama kihilist lähenemist -
madalamad kihid kandsid hoolt füüsilise ühenduse ja võrgu toimimise, kõrgemad aga erinevate
rakenduste (Telnet, FTP) eest. 1974. aastal loodi <a href="http://community.roxen.com/developers/idocs/rfc/rfc675.html">
Transmission Control Program</a> (TCP; hiljem nimetatud Transmission Control Protocol'iks),
millest neli aastat  hiljem eraldati omaette komponendina Internet Protocol (IP) ja
sündis tänaseni Interneti aluspõhjaks olev <a href="http://www.rad.com/networks/1997/nettut/protocols.html">
TCP/IP protokoll</a>.</p>


<p>Uus sidekanal oli niisiis sündinud - kuid rakendusi veel nappis.  1969-70 arendatakse Belli
In 1975, first mailing lists are created<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm</ref> and the initial version of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon_File Jargon File] is published. In January 1975 Altair 8800, one of the first microcomputers targetting hobbyists, is featured in the Popular Electronics magazine - this is noteworthy also for coming with the first Microsoft product in history, the Altair BASIC.  1978 [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minitel Minitel], a video terminal system that became hugely popular in France (so much that some authors suggest it hindering the initial spread of Internet proper in the country), is launched in Brittany.
firmas välja kaks tänase Interneti tugitala  - <a href="http://uwsg.iu.edu/usail/concepts/unixhx.html">
programmeerimiskeel C ja operatsioonisüsteem Unix</a>. 1970. aastal luuakse Hawaiil Alohanet, mis lisaks
ühe varaseima laivõrgu tiitlile põhines ka pakett-raadiosidel ning oli seega üks esimesi traadita võrke.  1971 õnnestub Massachusettsi arvutiinseneril
Ray Tomlinsonil <a href="http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm">saata tekstisõnum
ühest arvutist teise</a> -  E-post oli sündinud. Peagi kirjutas Tomlinson esimese algelise
elektronpostisüsteemi.  Aasta hiljem pakub ta oma veidi muudetud süsteemi ARPAnetile, kus
see saavutab kiiresti populaarsuse.  Kasutusele tuleb teletaibilt ülevõetud (kuid juba varem
kaubanduses kasutusel olnud <a href="http://www.herodios.com/herron_tc/atsign.html">
sümbol @</a> (tähenduses "at" - juures; tihti tähenduses X@Y = "X ühikut tükihinnaga Y").  Samal 1972. aastal leiab aset ka esimene arvutite
omavaheline <a href="http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm">suhtlusseanss
üle võrgu</a> - Stanfordis asuv "psühhopaat" arutas oma "probleeme" Massachusettsis asuva
"psühhiaatriga". Ilmub ka esimene Telneti spetsifikatsioon.</p>


<p>1973. aastal saab tollane ARPAnet esimesed rahvusvahelised liikmed Inglismaalt ja Norrast -
These times also brought two new phenomena:
kasutusele tuleb termin "Internet", ehkki esialgu mitte praeguses tähenduses.  Bob Metcalfe
* Vietnam War and President Nixon's Watergate scandal disillusioned many Americans - it has been suggested that they also motivated first known incidents of computer crime.
esitab Harvardis oma <a href="http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/">doktoritöös</a> Etherneti
* While Altair BASIC was considered a good piece of software, it was also the first that expected payment for every copy. A lot of people did not comply - so proprietary software and license violations (sometimes called 'piracy') were born togetner.
põhialused ja luuakse esimesed Ethernetil põhinevad võrgud.  Ilmub FTP spetsifikatsioon.
UIUC-i PLATO ajajaotussüsteemile lisatakse Notes-nimeline programm, mis võimaldab panna
tekste võrku lugemiseks.  Kujuneb esimene n.ö. <a href="http://bosco.cso.uiuc.edu/novanet/History.asp">
virtuaalkogukond</a>, Notes saab BBS-ide esiisaks.</p>


<p>1975. aastal luuakse esimesed <a href="http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm">meililistid
In 1978, the first ]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system BBS] - unsurprisingly named CBBS or ''Computerized Bulletin Board System'' - is opened in Chicago by Ward Christensen and Randy Suess<ref>http://www.historyoftheinternet.com/chap3.html</ref>. A year later, Usenet is born<ref>http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm</ref> and the first MUD opens in the Essex University<ref>http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html</ref> (the exact time differs by authors, different sources suggest 1978-80). Probably the first commercial spam e-mail is sent by a DEC employee<ref>http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamreact.html#msg</ref>.
</a> ning ilmub <a href="http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/jargon.html">"Jargon File"</a>,
küberkultuuri ühe alusdokumendi esmaversioon.  Järgmisel aastal tuleb kasutusele UUCP (Unix To Unix Copy) protokoll, huvitava faktina
võib veel mainida esmakordset meilikasutamist riigipea - Briti kuninganna Elizabeth II poolt. Prantslased loovad
Miniteli-nimelise terminalipõhise süsteemi, mis saab nii populaarseks, et "päris" Internetile pikka aega
jalgu jääb.</p>


<p>Paljude heade ja kasulike nähtuste kõrval areneb ka pahupool. Mitmed uurijad on leidnud, et
Another well-known phenomenon was born around that time - emoticons a.k. smileys. There are two contenders - opinions differ whether it was Kevin Mackenzie in 1979 or Scott Fahlman in 1982 to use them for the first time.<ref>http://www.sherv.net/emoticon-history.html</ref><ref>http://mashable.com/2011/09/20/emoticon-history/</ref>.
Vietnami sõda (1965-75) ja <a href="http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0861886.html">
Watergate'i afäär (1972-74)</a> purustasid paljude ameeriklaste illusioonid ja ka usu oma
riigivõimu. Kräkkimine ja <em>phreaking</em> saavad alguse siit. 1975 tuleb turule esimene mikroarvuti,
<a href="http://www.hyperweb.com/altair/">Altair 8800</a>, millele Paul Allen ja Bill Gates kirjutavad BASICu ning esmakordselt hakkavad tarkvara eest ka
raha küsima - alguse saab tänaseni kestev filosoofiline lõhe kahe lähenemise vahel.</p>


<p>70-ndatel kujunes USA-s 3 eri tehnoloogiatel baseeruvat võrku - ARPANet (kaablid),  ALOHANet
== Let there be Internet ==
Hawaiil (raadio) ja SatNet (satelliitside).  1977 saadeti esimene teade üle kolme võrgu,
kasutades TCP-protokolli.</p>


<p>1978 - Ward Christensen ja Randy Suess avavad Chicagos esimese BBS-i (<a href="http://www.historyoftheinternet.com/chap3.html">
In 1982, TCP/IP was officially designated as the core protocol of ARPAnet and Internet is defined in its today's sense of 'network of networks'. UK and Norway leave ARPAnet and replace the cables with a satellite connection.  
Computerized Bulletin Board System, CBBS</a>). Järgmisel aastal näeb ilmavalgust <a href="http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm">
Usenet</a> ja Essexi ülikoolis avatakse <a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html">esimene MUD</a>.
Palju vastakaid arvamusi tekitab esialgu Kevin MacKenzie soovitus ilmestada kuiva võrguteksti
emotsioone näitavate märkidega - üsna varsti aga saab emootikonide kasutamine üldiseks praktikaks.</p>


<p>1982. aastal saab  TCP/IP  ametlikult ARPAneti  "põhjaks", esmakordselt määratletakse
In 1983, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet Fidonet] is founded - for a time, it was also popular in Estonia due to local phone calls being free and 'real' Internet hard to reach (during the last years of Soviet rule). Ethernet-based local networks flourish, helping also Internet to grow.
Internet tänases tähenduses kui võrkude võrk.  Norra ja Inglismaa lahkuvad ARPAnetist ja
asendavad kaabliühenduse satelliidipõhise ühendusega (ARPAnet ise tegutses veel mõnda aega
ja lõpetas tegevuse 1990. aastal). 1983 saab alguse <a href="http://www.wps.com/FidoNet/">


Fidonet</a> (enne Interneti levikut oli üksjagu populaarne ka Eestis - telefonikõned olid ET-
By 1985, Internet stabilizes with four main services in E-mail, Telnet, FTP and Usenet, with IRC added in 1988. In 1989, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN CERN] in Switzerland is connected to Internet. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee Timothy Berners-Lee], a British researcher, had studied non-linear presentation of text since mid-80s, and submitted a research proposal for it in March 1989. His second attempt in 1990 was successful and by 1992, his hypertext method and browser was widely used in research documentation.<ref>http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html</ref>. As it was available from the CERN FTP archive, it spread quickly (note: Berners-Lee chose to publish his system as public domain).
eelsel ajastul ju tasuta!). Etherneti tehnoloogial põhinevad kohtvõrgud levivad kõikjal ja
aitavad omakorda kaasa Interneti levikule.   Stanfordis võetakse kasutusele  esimene nimeserver
(NIC) ja aasta hiljem esimene domeeninimeserver (DNS).</p>


<p>1985. aastaks oli Interneti põhiteenusteks kujunenud E-post, Telnet, FTP ja Usenet,
The "Web explosion" in early 90-s happened due to a number of emerging technologies:
lisaks veel mõned väiksemad rakendused (näiteks hilisemate sõnumisüsteemide üheks eellaseks peetav IRC
* PC-compatible computers had become "the personal computer", ensuring a common hardware platform - at first for clients, but later serving also as inexpensive simple server machines.
aastast 1988). USA-s ja Inglismaal kostis üha enam hääli, mis nõudsid
* Linux, starting in 1991, offered a free (in both senses) system software (especially when the Apache web server was developed a bit later).
ligipääsu Internetile kõigile soovijaile akadeemilises sfääris.</p>
* MS Windows became the widely used client platform for common users.
* NCSA Mosaic, the first web browser that developed a wider user base.


<p>1989. aastal sai Euroopa Tuumauuringute Keskus (CERN) Sveitsis netiühenduse.  Üks
kohalikest teadlastest, <a href="http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/bernerslee.html">
Tim Berners-Lee</a> oli juba 80. keskpaigast tegelnud mittelineaarse tekstiesituse meetoditega
ja esitas oma vastava uurimistaotluse 1989. aasta märtsis.  Asjad ei läinud aga päris libedalt ja ta
esitas oma taotluse 1990. aasta novembris teistkordselt.  Järgneva aasta jooksul sai ta oma uuringutele
siiski toetuse ja 1992. aastaks kasutati <a href="http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html">
Berners-Lee hüpertekstimeetodit</a> ja brauserit tuumauuringute dokumentatsiooni levitamiseks.
FTP kaudu aga levis brauser ka Internetti  (tähelepanu väärib asjaolu, et Berners-Lee andis oma loomingule
üsna teadliku sammuna <em>public domain</em> -staatuse - see fakt võis olla selle kiire ja laialdase
leviku jaoks üsna määrava tähtsusega) ning samalaadseid katsetusi hakati tegema üle maailma. </p>


<p>Suur osa on siin ilmselt mitmel tolleaegsel tehnikasaavutusel. IBM-i PC-st oli selleks ajaks saanud tõeline
A side note: there was an earlier hypertext system developed by the University of Minnesota called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_%28protocol%29 Gopher} that offered similar user experience (although without graphics). However, it was a poster case of short-sighted business decisions - while Berners-Lee opted for public domain, the developers of Gopher attempted to control and license it for profit (in hindsight, also at the worst possible moment with a strong competitor catching up - when it was re-licensed under GNU GPL in 2000 it was too late by far). Today, people behind Gopher are largely forgotten, while Berners-Lee is a respected inventor of the Web (and most likely also well-off economically).
massikaup. 1991. aastal soomerootsi tudengi <a href="http://www.mediavis.com/linus/">Linus Torvaldsi</a> poolt loodud Unixi-laadsel operatsioonisüsteemil Linux, millest tänaseks on saanud tõsine võistleja
suurtele kommertssüsteemidele. Ja tuleks tegelikult tunnistada ka paljukirutud Windowsi positiivset
rolli - just "windoosast" sai suure osa inimeste jaoks graafilise kasutajaliidese sünonüüm, veeb aga
on suure osa oma menust võlgu just graafilisusele ja atraktiivsusele.</p>


<p>Üheks eespoolmainitud moel "veebindusega" tegelejaks oli National Center of Supercomputing Applications
Marc Andreessen, a former employee of NCSA, founded [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape Netscape Communications] in 1994. In the same year, Brian Pinkerton presents a new kind of software called https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebCrawler WebCrawler], to find information from the rapidly growing Web - the topic of his thesis also becomes the first search engine. Also around the same time, Stanford students [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Filo David Filo] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Yang_%28entrepreneur%29 Jerry Yang] start to turn their personal collection of web links into a portal named [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo! Yahoo!].
(NCSA), kus töötas ka mees nimega Marc Andreessen.  1993. aasta, mil NCSA lasi välja Mosaici, kujunes
murranguliseks.  WWW laia leviku tõttu jäi teise samalaadse hüpertekstisüsteemi <a href="http://www.cosy.sbg.ac.at/doc/eegtti/eeg_186.html#SEC187">Gopher</a>, mis lasti välja
1991. aastal, üsna lühiajaliseks. Gopher on tegelikult väga hea näide
süsteemist, mille loojate rahaahnus põhja lasi - Gopheri loojad otsustasid hakata seda litsentseerima
ja valisid selleks halvima võimaliku aja, kui tagant oli lähenemas ohtlik konkurent (<em>sir</em> Berners-Leel
seevastu jätkus oidu mitte minna näiliselt kergema vastupanu teed ja ta tegi veebist vaba protokolli.  
Viimaks võitsid sellest kõik, ka looja ise). Sellest tasuks mõnel tänapäeva suurfirmal midagi õppida...</p>


<p>Internetist ja veebist sai kiiresti moesõna, soliidsed ajakirjad ja ajalehed kirjutasid
As the explosive growth called for better coordination, organizations like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InterNIC InterNIC] (1993; in 1998, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN ICANN] took the duties over) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium W3C] (1994) were founded.  In 1995, several crucial components of the web infrastructure were born - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server Apache], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_%28programming_language%29 Java], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP PHP] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL MySQL].
üksteise võidu uuest leiutisest. 1994. aasta märtsis lahkus Marc Andreessen NCSAst ja asutas
Netscape Communicationsi. Sama aasta alguses esitab Washingtoni Ülikooli tudeng <a href="http://www.thinkpink.com/bp/bio.html">Brian Pinkerton</a> ühel seminaril uut tüüpi
rakendust nimega Webcrawler, mis oli mõeldud veebist info otsimiseks. Webcrawlerist saab
Pinkertoni väitekirja teema ja ühtlasi esimene veebi-otsingumootor Internetis. Umbes samal
ajal hakkavad kaks Stanfordi tudengit (jälle!), <a href="http://www.sun.com/950523/yahoostory.html">
David Filo ja Jerry Yang</a>, oma huvitavate võrguaadresside põhjal koostama võrgukataloogi,
mida nimetavad "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle" ehk lühemalt YAHOO. Lingikogust
sai tänini toimiv ja väga laialt kasutatav veebikataloog, pluss veel koostöös Netscape'iga ka
väga tulutoov äriettevõte.</p>


<p>Interneti ja veebi populaarsuse plahvatuslik kasv nõudis ka suuremat tähelepanu seni
küllaltki kaootiliselt kasvanud võrgu arengu koordineerimisele - loodi uued organisatsioonid
nagu <a href="http://www.internic.org">InterNIC</a> domeeninimede jagamiseks (1993) ja <a href="http://w3c.org">World Wide Web Consortium</a> (W3C) veebi arengusuundade määratlemiseks
(1994).  1995. aastasse jääb kahe tänaseni arvestatava süsteemi sünd  - loodi programmeerimiskeel
<a href="http://java.sun.com/">Java</a> ning ilmus veebiserveri <a href="http://www.apache.org">
Apache</a> esmaversioon (ka hilisemate suursoosikute PHP ja MySQLi algvariantide ilmumine jääb sellesse aega).</p>


<p>Veebis leiduva materjali kontrollimatus ja "seinast seina" sisu pahandas USA võimumehi ning esimese
== Mainstreaming ==
nendepoolse käiguna pakuti 1995/96. aastal  välja <a href="http://www.epic.org/cda/exon_bill.html">
Communication Decency Act</a> (CDA) - tulemuseks  oli ülevõrguline protestilaine, mis sundis
võimuesindajaid tagasi tõmbuma.  Järgmisel aastal aga tehti uus katse COPA-ga (Child Online
Protection Act) - mingis vormis läks see läbi, kuid praktilist tsensuuri siiski kehtestada ei
õnnestunud ja <a href="http://www.epic.org/free_speech/copa/">maadejagamine jätkub tänini</a>, ehkki
2000. aastal tehtud kolmas katse <em>Children's Internet Protection Act</em>'i näol oli kõige edukam (hoolimata
Ameerika Raamatukogude Assotsiatsiooni kolmeaastasest vastupanust) ning
Bushi praegune administratsioon on muuhulgas ka Interneti tsenseerimise suunas mitmeid samme astunud.</p>


<p>Vastukaaluks võrgus süvenevale ärimeelele ja kontrollimaaniale avaldas ansambli <em>Grateful Dead</em>
While Internet had enjoyed a time of relatively independent development as a haven of geeks, its mainstreaming also brought along increasing attempts of 'getting things under control' by the U.S. government. The first serious try of Internet censorship, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_Decency_Act Communications Decency Act] of 1995/96 caused a major backlash and was swamped in legal problems. The next, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_Online_Protection_Act Child Online Protection Act] was challenged immediately and after a long fight at court was shut down in 2009. However, the third attempt in [Children's Internet Protection Act] passed and mandated censorship in all K-12 educational facilities and libraries.
endine laulutekstikirjutaja John Perry Barlow <a href="http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html">
"Küberruumi iseseisvusdeklaratsiooni"</a>, mis tõstis taas prioriteediks võrgu esialgsed hoiakud ja väärtused.</p>


<p>Kui tarkvaratööstuse hiiglane Microsoft oli seni suhtunud Interneti küllaltki üleolevalt ja
Increased censorship coupled with deepening commercialization caused the former lyricist of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grateful_Dead Grateful Dead], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Perry_Barlow John Perry Barlow] to write and publish [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Declaration_of_the_Independence_of_Cyberspace A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace].  Barlow was also a founder of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Frontier_Foundation Electronic Frontier Foundation], a long-time promoter of freedom of expression and press in the U.S.
pidanud seda eelkõige puberteetikute mänguasjaks, siis Netscape'i majanduslik edu ja omapoolne
arusaamisele jõudmine võrgu tähtsusest  pani firma 1996. aastal oma turustrateegiat kõvasti
revideerima ja suunama suure osa ressurssidest võrgutoodete arendamisele (eelnevalt tehti kaks
edutut pingutust - esmalt üritati <a href="http://www.naag.org/features/microsoft/law/browser.cfm">
Netscape'i keelitada oma brauserit Windowsi jaoks mitte tegema</a>, seejärel loodeti Microsoft
Networkiga Internet üle trumbata).  Tulemuseks oli nn. brauserisõda Netscape'iga, mis kestab
mingil määral tänini, ehkki Microsofti võimsus ja rikkus on kuni viimase ajani kippunud vaekaussi
nende kasuks kallutama. Tuleb arvata, et viimast sõna pole veel öeldud - taas kord on pead tõstmas
ka muud veebilehitsejad eesotsas Mozilla ja Firefoxiga - , kuid igal juhul on juba praegu selge,
et brauserisõjas võitsid eelkõige tarbijad (Microsofti sundimine midagi tasuta levitama on iseenesest
juba sündmus omaette :) ). </p>


<p>Sajandivahetuse märksõnadeks võiks olla veebi tugev kommertsialiseerumine (see algas
It is interesting to note that for awhile, Microsoft was rather dismissive towards Internet, rather promoting 'their own thing' Microsoft Network (MSN). It changed when they could not get Netscape to divide the market<ref>http://www.naag.org/features/microsoft/law/browser.cfm</ref>) - the 'Tidal Wave' memo<ref>http://www.wired.com/2010/05/0526bill-gates-internet-memo/</ref> can be considered the start of the 'browser wars' - Microsoft went on to defeat Netscape, being afterwards seriously challenged by new contenders like Mozilla and Google in turn.
tegelikult juba 1996. aasta paiku), multimeediatehnoloogiate (RealAudio, Flash, MP3) kiire levik
ning uute tehnoloogiate kasutuselevõtt. Interneti omanäolisus ja erijooned muude meediakanalitega
on siiski säilinud, niisamuti  häkkerivaim ja küberkultuur, mis arenevad koos Internetiga edasi.
Lisaks on vaba tarkvara, mis pärit Internetiga samast ajastust ja ideedest, hakanud üha jõulisemalt
konkureerima kommertslahendustega. </p>


<p>Sajandivahetuse paiku sai alguse ka sõnumiedastussüsteemide populaarsuse kiire kasv, mis suuresti tõrjusid
Some more keywords from the turn of the century:
välja varasemad jututoad ning mingil määral ka IRC. 1996. aastal loodi ICQ, 1997 AOLi AIM (millest hiljem
* the dotcom boom and strong wave of commercialization
arenes Gaim/Pidgin) ja 1999 MSN Messenger (2006 nimetati ümber Windows Live Messengeriks). Sajandivahetuse
* proliferation of multimedia (RealAudio, Flash, MP3...) allowed by faster connections
paiku tekkisid erinevaid protokolle toetavad kliendid ning levima hakkas ka avatud lähtekoodil põhinev Jabber.</p>
* free and open-source software, resurrection of the academic hacker culture of the 70s
* various network communities paving way to modern social media - in some places, there was the talker and MUD boom in late 90s, later giving way to 'messengers' (ICQ, AIM, MSN/Live Messenger etc) which in turn were shadowed by the first social networking sites (Friendster, MySpace, Orkut and later Facebook).
* emergence of a wide variety of social software - Wikipedia 2001, Flickr 2004, YouTube 2005 etc, plus the 'everyman's writing' boom - blogs, fan fiction, also microblogging (Twitter and others). More recent additions include Reddit, LinkedIn, Instagram, Tumblr, Snapchat and many others. [http://www.4chan.org/ 4chan] deserves a separate notion - while this 'discussion board' site from 2003 contains many legitimate and civilized discussions on varios topics, its 'Random' board is known as the birthplace of Anonymous (due to everyone on the board labelled as such) and a major source of online hazing, cyberbullying and -distortion (including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swatting swatting]).


<p>Teise suure tendentsina tuleks mainida sotsiaalse tarkvara esiletõusu (ajaveebid, wikid jne), sellest aga
In the new century:
tuleb täpsemalt juttu järgmises loengus. Siinkohal võiks aga siiski mainida mõningaid tuntumaid rakendusi -
2001 sai alguse <a href="http://www.wikipedia.org" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, 2004  <a href="http://www.flickr.com"
title="Flickr">Flickr</a>, 2005  <a href="http://www.youtube.com" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>... Ühe juba
pikema ajalooga nähtusena (pärineb ajast juba enne sotsiaaltarkvara buumi) väärib äramärkimist fännikirjandus, kus
huvilised kirjutavad oma lõbuks täiendavaid osi näiteks "Sõrmuste isandale", "Näljamängudele" ja mitmetele muudele
kuulsatele lugudele (kindlasti on nende tase kõikuv, kuid näiteks <a href="http://www.fanfiction.net"
title="Fanfiction.net">FanFiction.net'is</a> ja <a href="http://www.archiveofourown.org"
title="ArchiveOfOurOwn">AO3's</a> leiab ka lugusid, mis ei jää tasemelt alla algallikatele).</p>


<p>Mainida tuleks ka  mikroblogimist, kus ajaveebi sissekanded on piiratud SMS-sõnumiga võrreldava mahuga (näiteks 140
* social media has obtained strong influence on society (e.g. the Arabian Spring and various other conflicts, Twitter as a politician's tool, Facebook as a channel for nearly everything).
tähemärki). Üle maailma on populaarne <a href="http://www.twitter.com" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, ent on olemas ka
* switching to the next version of Internet Protocol (IPv6) has been going on for awhile.
Soomes loodud ja hiljem Google'i omandatud <a href="http://www.jaiku.com" title="Jaiku">Jaiku</a>, vaba tarkvara põhimõtteid
* the Web is standardizing on HTML5 instead of former proprietary multimedia protocols (Flash, Silverlight).
rõhutav <a href="http://www.identi.ca" title="identi.ca">identi.ca</a> jpt.</p>
* mobile devices are on the way to becoming the main tools for connecting to Internet (especially in developing countries).
* rapid evolution of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology educational technology] and online learning systems (including the recent boom of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_open_online_course MOOCs]).
* there has been a shift towards greater device agnosticism, promoted by various things like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bring_your_own_device BYOD], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsive_web_design responsive web design] etc.
* Internet has become a part of the battlefield - both for cyberwars between countries and national/international cybercrime. This has in turn led to the emergence of cybersecurity as a central discipline.


<p>Ja muidugi ei saa üle ega ümber sotsiaalvõrgustikest, mis on tänaseks saanud lisaks inimeste ühendamisele ka mitmeid muid funktsioone
== For conclusion: a word of warning ==
õppimisest poliitikani. Esimesteks tänases mõttes sotsiaalvõrgustikeks olid 2002. aastal alustanud <a href="http://www.friendster.com"
title="Friendster">Friendster</a> ja ... <a href="http://www.rate.ee" title="Rate.ee">Rate.ee</a> (ehkki viimase puhul võib veidi vaielda
selle üle, kuivõrd oli tegu üldotstarbelise võrgustikuga ja kuivõrd fotoportaaliga). 2003. aastal lisandusid <a href="http://www.myspace.com"
title="MySpace">MySpace</a> ja <a href="http://www.linkedin.com" title="LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a> ning veel aasta pärast juba ka Eestis laia
kõlapinda leidnud <a href="http://www.orkut.com" title="Orkut">Orkut</a> ja tänini siinmail valitsev  <a href="http://www.facebook.com"
title="Facebook">Facebook</a>. Hilisematest tulijatest tasub mainida 2010. aastal alustanud ning 2012. aastal kogukonnapõhiseks muudetud
<a href="http://diasporaproject.org/" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a> projekti (mis erinevalt paljudest teistest üritab pöörata tähelepanu ka kasutaja
privaatsusele) ning 2011. alguse saanud <a href="http://plus.google.com" title="Google+">Google+'i</a>. Huvitava detailina võib mainida ka
kaht üksteisele järgnenud "rahvasterändamist" siinmail - Orkuti sünni järel kolis suur osa veidi vanemaid kasutajaid Rate.ee pealt sinna, üsna
varsti aga järgnes suur ülekolimine Facebooki. Viimaste aastate tuntumate tulijate seas võib veel mainida
<a href="http://www.instagram.com" title="Instagram">Instagrami</a>, <a href="http://www.reddit.com"
title="Reddit">Redditit</a>, <a href="http://www.tumblr.com
title="Tumblr">Tumblrit</a> ja <a href="http://www.snapchat.com" title="Snapchat">Snapchatti</a></p>


<p>Negatiivsete nähtuste osas aga tuleks lähemalt peatuda veel ühel viimaste aastate probleemil. Nimelt on
For us, the last point above is perhaps the biggest food for thought. In early days of computing there was a
püsiühenduste hinnad langenud tavakasutajale kättesaadavasse hinnaklassi ning nende kasutamine on plahvatuslikult
'priesthood' of knowledgeable users who were the only ones having access to the computers. Then, the PC with its ubiquity came nearer to ordinary people. Yet recently, the approach has regrettably shifted again - and one of the main reasons is money. Ignorant people are the best clients - so instead of teaching them how to take care of one's computer, it is much easier (and more profitable) to sell them the service. On the contrary, a knowledgeable user would become a conscious customer and could possibly opt for a competing offer instead.  
kasvanud. Kasvanud aga ei ole tavalise arvutikasutaja oskused ja teadmised - ja kui arvesse võtta, et rõhuv
enamus neist kasutab oma arvutis niigi turvaprobleemide all kannatavaid MS operatsioonisüsteeme, mis pealegi jäetakse
pahatihti isegi elementaartasemel uuendamata, siis ongi pahandus käes. Absoluutne enamik võrgus levivatest
pahadest asjadest - viirused, nuhk- ja pättvara, ründeskriptid, ka lihtsalt ebaseaduslik tarkvara - võlgneb oma
suure leviulatuse pahaaimamatute võhikute arvutitele, mille kurikaelad on "rajalt maha võtnud" ja sinna enda
pesa teinud.  Tulemuseks on olukord, kus arvutiomaniku lollus ei löö tagasi mitte ainult tema enese pihta
(võib ka üldse mitte lüüa - vahel võib selline mahamurtud süsteem pikka aega ka väliselt tõrgeteta töötada
ja arvutiomanik ei aimagi, mis toimub. Vähemalt senikaua, kuni tema arvutist pole FBI peakorterit rünnatud),
vaid ka paljudele teistele. Kui õnnetusekuulutajad on juba mõnda aega ennustanud Interneti solgisurma - ehk siis
olukorda, kus rämpspost ja viirused muudavad võrgu kasutamise mõttetuks -, siis eespoolkirjeldatud olukord on
sellele tublisti kaasa aitamas. Võib-olla tuleks püsiühenduste taotlejatel hakata sooritama eksameid või seatakse
sisse koduarvutite perioodiline ülevaatus... Praegu on paraku olukord võrreldav linnaliiklusega, kus peremehetsevad
lollid, ülbed ja logude autode roolis istuvad rullnokad. Microsofti poolt hiljuti pakutud lahendus "Laske meil
50 dollari eest aastas ise teie arvutit hallata" ei ole ilmselt paljudele vastuvõetav.</p>


<p>Mis saab edasi?  Üsna huvitav on jälgida kahe vastandliku tendentsi arengut. Ühelt poolt kestab ikka veel Microsofti
Unfortunately, the dumbing-down tendency is seen in hardware (non-swappable parts like memory chips), software (see the example below) and services (EULAs and other service contracts are worth reading). In security, the approach is known as 'security through obscurity'. A good example is upgrading the system - when earlier versions of Windows had countless problems with out-of-date systems, Microsoft "solved" it with Windows 10, making updates automatic. What, when and why happens in a user's computer is still a mystery, and should anything fail, the user is even more helpless. So mechanical spoon-feeding is not a solution.
ja teiste suurfirmade ülemvõim, teisalt ei suuda isegi nende miljardid anda lõplikku hoopi alternatiivsele
lähenemisele (vaba ja avatud lähtekoodiga tarkvara ja sellega seotud uued ärimudelid). Kui kaua kaksikvõim
kestab ja kuhu poole asi kaldub, näitavad lähiaastad. Aga muidugi pole ka võimatu, et Võrku ootab ikkagi solgisurm...</p>


So the next big challenge of the Cyberspace would probably be: how to turn the subjects into citizens (or would we end up in the Matrix...?).


== References ==
== References ==
320. rida: 126. rida:
== For further reading ==
== For further reading ==


<ul>
* Moschovitis C. et al. History of the Internet
<li>Moschovitis C. et al. History of the Internet</li>
* http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm
<li><a href="http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm" title="Living Internet">Living Internet</a></li>
* http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/
<li><a href="http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/" title="Hobbes' Internet Timeline">Hobbes' Internet Timeline</a></li>
* http://www.nic.funet.fi/index/FUNET/history/internet/en/etusivu-en.html  
<li><a href="http://www.nic.funet.fi/index/FUNET/history/internet/en/etusivu-en.html" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet @FUNET</a></li>
* http://www.internetsociety.org//internet/internet-51/history-internet
<li><a href="http://www.internetsociety.org//internet/internet-51/history-internet" title="History of the Internet">History of the Internet @ISOC</a></li>
</ul>

Viimane redaktsioon: 13. veebruar 2018, kell 09:31


For starters

If we ask a random guy about Internet, chances are that his reply would be in the vein of "a cool thing for hanging around with friends, reading news and downloading stuff - it was built sometime around 1990 or so". Somebody would probably mention just the F-word (Facebook, that is).

But Internet is older, larger, and more colourful and controversial than just that. It is a communication channel, a mass medium, a fantasy world and a free-for-all arena. As any powerful tool, it can be used for good and evil alike - as we can see later, it can help people in sometimes surprising ways, yet give ground to nasty amounts of superficiality, irresponsibility and cruelty.

The term 'cyberspace' is actually older than Internet, as it was used by two Danish artists already in the 1960s[1]. The current meaning entered the public knowledge through the writings of William Gibson (most famously used in Neuromancer). While the concept is actually wider than just Internet, it is often used for Internet - especially to stress the social aspect rather than technical. Today's Internet is more and more defined as a social space.


Main services

Starting with the most obvious that is often mistaken for 'Internet' by commoners - the World Wide Web or WWW, the hypertext network. What started out as a plain text system suitable for connecting research documents, gradually added new possibilities in graphics and multimedia, largely taking over many roles of previously used services (e.g. as a communication channel - blogs, wikis and social networking sites are technically all just web pages. Or information search - old services like Archie or Gopher were gradually replaced by Google and others). As the backbone of today's information society, Web interfaces can be used to set up home electronics, do car diagnostics or sell stock options.

Then there is the real oldtimer - E-mail. Born half by accident as a side product of data transfer and remote login, it was the main service of Internet for a long time and has not given up much of that - an e-mail address on a calling card is as self-explanatory as a phone number. In addition, it gave rise to early Internet communities in the form of mailing lists, and later, Usenet.

Sometimes people ask "But how was stuff downloaded before the Web?". Using FTP, of course. While it is integrated with Web interfaces in many modern systems, it is still in use as a separate service as well - albeit mostly in its newer, more secure forms (SFTP, FTPS). In addition, P2P services can also considered descendants of FTP[2].

Remote access protocols like Telnet or rlogin also date back to the era of room-sized computers - computers were scarce and expensive, many facilities had to use more powerful machines remotely over distance. With the advent of PCs, Telnet allowed access to large Unix machines from a home PC, many applications that nowadays use the Web were initially available over Telnet (e.g. search engines). Telnet was also the way to log into early chatrooms, talkers and MUDs. Just like FTP, more secure alternatives like SSH have largely replaced original Telnet by now.

Usenet was the pre-web standard of online discussions - for a time, there was a newsgroup for practically everything and while most of them still exist, they have been pushed aside by newer web-based alternatives. Today, the real wealth of Usenet lies in its archives that offer valuable insight into the pre-web era of Internet (for example, the message of Tim Berners-Lee announcing his novel hypertext system[3] or of Linus Torvalds announcing Linux[4] both appeared first on Usenet).

Finally, there was a number of services allowing real-time communication between users. From talk (an utility in Unix that allowed two users to chat) to IRC to various "messengers" (ICQ, AIM, MSN...) to Skype to today's web-based chatrooms.


Prehistory

Various authors count different points in history as the beginning of Internet. Some (like Gregory R. Gromov[5]) consider the Atlantic cable of 1866 as the starting point (the first attempt was actually made already in 1858, but it worked just for a couple of days - the cables from 1866 were in use for more than 100 years). Others like Moschovitis et al[6] mention U.S. radio enthusiasts from WWI (likely the first use of 'hacker' in technological context, plus the U.S. Radio Act from 1927, the ancestor of today's data protection laws, was partially motivated by the need to get the rules in place). Yet others start the history from the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 in 1957 that raised a lot of alarm in the U.S. and among other countermeasures, greatly boosted defense-oriented research that led to the development of first packet switching networks.

Some other waypoints include

  • 1938 - the first 'media bubble' when New York aired one of the first audio plays, Herbert G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, performed by the suggestive voice of Orson Welles. The description of Martians invading New York was so vivid that the resulting panic was overwhelming and some people were narrowly kept away from killing themselves[7]. While commercial broadcasting was spreading rapidly in the U.S., there was but little regulation.
  • 1945 - Vannevar Bush writes an article titled As We May Think, suggesting Memex, a hypertext system using microfilm.[8]
  • 1947 - Grace Murray Hopper examined a malfunctioning Mark II computer and discovered a moth that had been stuck and caused the problem. The culprit was taped into the logbook accompanied by the description "The first actual case of a bug being found", and the terms of 'bug', 'debug' and 'debugger' got their start.[9]
  • 1948 - Norbert Wiener publishes Cybernetics, the book that founded a new discipline of the same name.
  • 1956 - John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky chair the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence where the exponential development of technology was first proposed (also, the term 'artificial intelligence' was coined around the same time).[10]
  • 1960 - J.C.R. Licklider publishes a paper titled Man-Computer Symbiosis that predicted many things visible in today's information society.[11]
  • 1962 - Douglas Engelbart publishes Augmenting Human Intelligence: A Conceptual Framework.[12] - Engelbart (who is also credited as the inventor of computer mouse and graphical user interface) was among the first pioneers who saw computers more than just powerful calculators.


Early days

Most authors are in agreement that the actual history of Internet started after the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 which resulted in significant boost to defense-oriented research in the US. The National Defense Education Act[13] was a state-financed student loan programme to train scientists for the military - in 1959 the total was USD 5 billion, rising to 13 billion by 1964. Among the organizations funded from the programme was also the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) that was tasked to find a counter to a possible attack from space[14]. To achieve that, they started to research a possible all-encompassing defense network that was to keep working 'half dead', after the Soviet attack (some sources contest it, but a majority seems to agree).

The initial theory was formulated by Leonhard Kleinrock in MIT in 1961[15] and practical implementation proposed by Paul Baran in 1964[16]. The main idea was to divide traffic into small chunks (called packets) that would be sent over the network independently from each other. The first network connected four computers located in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Stanford and Utah - the network was later named ARPAnet. The first attempts were rocky at best - there is a well-known description of how 'login' was sent letter by letter over the network and crashed the system at 'g'.[17]

(A side note: while the early days of Internet included famous professors and researchers, the main impetus came from the practical implementors - young, passionate and geeky enthusiasts. In addition to the technology, these people also founded the free-minded, decidedly anti-authoritarian cyberculture - all this taking place during the 'Hippie age' likely played a role too.)

A major challenge was to find a way for different computer types to interact over the network. A set of protocols was created that used layered approach with lower layers dealing with physical connection and networking, upper ones with various applications. The Transmission Control Program (later renamed Transmission Control Protocol or TCP) was created in 1974[18] followed in 1978 by Internet Protocol, forming the foundation of Internet, TCP/IP[19]

In 1969-70, two of the major tools are born, the Unix operating system and C programming language[20]. The Alohanet in Hawaii, built in 1970, became one of the first wireless networks. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson succeeds in sending a text message from one computer to another, later also writing a basic softwarne for sending e-mail[21]. The @-sign comes to use from teletype[22]. In the University of Illinois, Michael S. Hart starts Project Gutenberg, the first digital library (for a long time, it was just a collection of electronic texts, but in recent years it has greatly increased its importance as a source of free e-books). In 1972, the first long-distance text chat occurs (what is especially interesting: both sides were actually what we would call 'bots' today) - true to the spirit of the times, it emulates a 'psychiatrist' in Massachusetts advising a 'patient' in Stanford. [23], [24]. The Telnet protocol for remote connections is developed in the same year.

In 1973, the network expands to the UK and Norway (thus, the term 'Internet' first appears). The doctoral thesis of Bob Metcalfe describes the networks later known as Ethernet.[25]. The first specification of FTP is published. At UIUC, software called Notes is added to the PLATO system, allowing posting texts online - this is considered a forefather of various online systems.[26]. Bob Metcalfe publishes RFC 602 titled "The Stockings Were Hung by the Chimney with Care", that was the first public treatise on dangers coming from weak passwords[27] (unfortunately, people have not grown any wiser since).

In 1975, first mailing lists are created[28] and the initial version of the Jargon File is published. In January 1975 Altair 8800, one of the first microcomputers targetting hobbyists, is featured in the Popular Electronics magazine - this is noteworthy also for coming with the first Microsoft product in history, the Altair BASIC. 1978 Minitel, a video terminal system that became hugely popular in France (so much that some authors suggest it hindering the initial spread of Internet proper in the country), is launched in Brittany.

These times also brought two new phenomena:

  • Vietnam War and President Nixon's Watergate scandal disillusioned many Americans - it has been suggested that they also motivated first known incidents of computer crime.
  • While Altair BASIC was considered a good piece of software, it was also the first that expected payment for every copy. A lot of people did not comply - so proprietary software and license violations (sometimes called 'piracy') were born togetner.

In 1978, the first ]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system BBS] - unsurprisingly named CBBS or Computerized Bulletin Board System - is opened in Chicago by Ward Christensen and Randy Suess[29]. A year later, Usenet is born[30] and the first MUD opens in the Essex University[31] (the exact time differs by authors, different sources suggest 1978-80). Probably the first commercial spam e-mail is sent by a DEC employee[32].

Another well-known phenomenon was born around that time - emoticons a.k. smileys. There are two contenders - opinions differ whether it was Kevin Mackenzie in 1979 or Scott Fahlman in 1982 to use them for the first time.[33][34].

Let there be Internet

In 1982, TCP/IP was officially designated as the core protocol of ARPAnet and Internet is defined in its today's sense of 'network of networks'. UK and Norway leave ARPAnet and replace the cables with a satellite connection.

In 1983, Fidonet is founded - for a time, it was also popular in Estonia due to local phone calls being free and 'real' Internet hard to reach (during the last years of Soviet rule). Ethernet-based local networks flourish, helping also Internet to grow.

By 1985, Internet stabilizes with four main services in E-mail, Telnet, FTP and Usenet, with IRC added in 1988. In 1989, CERN in Switzerland is connected to Internet. Timothy Berners-Lee, a British researcher, had studied non-linear presentation of text since mid-80s, and submitted a research proposal for it in March 1989. His second attempt in 1990 was successful and by 1992, his hypertext method and browser was widely used in research documentation.[35]. As it was available from the CERN FTP archive, it spread quickly (note: Berners-Lee chose to publish his system as public domain).

The "Web explosion" in early 90-s happened due to a number of emerging technologies:

  • PC-compatible computers had become "the personal computer", ensuring a common hardware platform - at first for clients, but later serving also as inexpensive simple server machines.
  • Linux, starting in 1991, offered a free (in both senses) system software (especially when the Apache web server was developed a bit later).
  • MS Windows became the widely used client platform for common users.
  • NCSA Mosaic, the first web browser that developed a wider user base.


A side note: there was an earlier hypertext system developed by the University of Minnesota called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_%28protocol%29 Gopher} that offered similar user experience (although without graphics). However, it was a poster case of short-sighted business decisions - while Berners-Lee opted for public domain, the developers of Gopher attempted to control and license it for profit (in hindsight, also at the worst possible moment with a strong competitor catching up - when it was re-licensed under GNU GPL in 2000 it was too late by far). Today, people behind Gopher are largely forgotten, while Berners-Lee is a respected inventor of the Web (and most likely also well-off economically).

Marc Andreessen, a former employee of NCSA, founded Netscape Communications in 1994. In the same year, Brian Pinkerton presents a new kind of software called https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebCrawler WebCrawler], to find information from the rapidly growing Web - the topic of his thesis also becomes the first search engine. Also around the same time, Stanford students David Filo and Jerry Yang start to turn their personal collection of web links into a portal named Yahoo!.

As the explosive growth called for better coordination, organizations like InterNIC (1993; in 1998, the ICANN took the duties over) and W3C (1994) were founded. In 1995, several crucial components of the web infrastructure were born - Apache, Java, PHP and MySQL.


Mainstreaming

While Internet had enjoyed a time of relatively independent development as a haven of geeks, its mainstreaming also brought along increasing attempts of 'getting things under control' by the U.S. government. The first serious try of Internet censorship, the Communications Decency Act of 1995/96 caused a major backlash and was swamped in legal problems. The next, Child Online Protection Act was challenged immediately and after a long fight at court was shut down in 2009. However, the third attempt in [Children's Internet Protection Act] passed and mandated censorship in all K-12 educational facilities and libraries.

Increased censorship coupled with deepening commercialization caused the former lyricist of the Grateful Dead, John Perry Barlow to write and publish A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace. Barlow was also a founder of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a long-time promoter of freedom of expression and press in the U.S.

It is interesting to note that for awhile, Microsoft was rather dismissive towards Internet, rather promoting 'their own thing' Microsoft Network (MSN). It changed when they could not get Netscape to divide the market[36]) - the 'Tidal Wave' memo[37] can be considered the start of the 'browser wars' - Microsoft went on to defeat Netscape, being afterwards seriously challenged by new contenders like Mozilla and Google in turn.

Some more keywords from the turn of the century:

  • the dotcom boom and strong wave of commercialization
  • proliferation of multimedia (RealAudio, Flash, MP3...) allowed by faster connections
  • free and open-source software, resurrection of the academic hacker culture of the 70s
  • various network communities paving way to modern social media - in some places, there was the talker and MUD boom in late 90s, later giving way to 'messengers' (ICQ, AIM, MSN/Live Messenger etc) which in turn were shadowed by the first social networking sites (Friendster, MySpace, Orkut and later Facebook).
  • emergence of a wide variety of social software - Wikipedia 2001, Flickr 2004, YouTube 2005 etc, plus the 'everyman's writing' boom - blogs, fan fiction, also microblogging (Twitter and others). More recent additions include Reddit, LinkedIn, Instagram, Tumblr, Snapchat and many others. 4chan deserves a separate notion - while this 'discussion board' site from 2003 contains many legitimate and civilized discussions on varios topics, its 'Random' board is known as the birthplace of Anonymous (due to everyone on the board labelled as such) and a major source of online hazing, cyberbullying and -distortion (including swatting).

In the new century:

  • social media has obtained strong influence on society (e.g. the Arabian Spring and various other conflicts, Twitter as a politician's tool, Facebook as a channel for nearly everything).
  • switching to the next version of Internet Protocol (IPv6) has been going on for awhile.
  • the Web is standardizing on HTML5 instead of former proprietary multimedia protocols (Flash, Silverlight).
  • mobile devices are on the way to becoming the main tools for connecting to Internet (especially in developing countries).
  • rapid evolution of educational technology and online learning systems (including the recent boom of MOOCs).
  • there has been a shift towards greater device agnosticism, promoted by various things like BYOD, responsive web design etc.
  • Internet has become a part of the battlefield - both for cyberwars between countries and national/international cybercrime. This has in turn led to the emergence of cybersecurity as a central discipline.

For conclusion: a word of warning

For us, the last point above is perhaps the biggest food for thought. In early days of computing there was a 'priesthood' of knowledgeable users who were the only ones having access to the computers. Then, the PC with its ubiquity came nearer to ordinary people. Yet recently, the approach has regrettably shifted again - and one of the main reasons is money. Ignorant people are the best clients - so instead of teaching them how to take care of one's computer, it is much easier (and more profitable) to sell them the service. On the contrary, a knowledgeable user would become a conscious customer and could possibly opt for a competing offer instead.

Unfortunately, the dumbing-down tendency is seen in hardware (non-swappable parts like memory chips), software (see the example below) and services (EULAs and other service contracts are worth reading). In security, the approach is known as 'security through obscurity'. A good example is upgrading the system - when earlier versions of Windows had countless problems with out-of-date systems, Microsoft "solved" it with Windows 10, making updates automatic. What, when and why happens in a user's computer is still a mystery, and should anything fail, the user is even more helpless. So mechanical spoon-feeding is not a solution.

So the next big challenge of the Cyberspace would probably be: how to turn the subjects into citizens (or would we end up in the Matrix...?).

References

  1. ↑ http://www.kunstkritikk.com/kommentar/the-reinvention-of-cyberspace/
  2. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing
  3. ↑ https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/comp.sys.next.announce/avWAjISncfw
  4. ↑ https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~awb/linux.history.html
  5. ↑ http://www.netvalley.com/intval1.html
  6. ↑ https://books.google.ee/books/about/History_of_the_Internet.html?id=Hu5SAAAAMAAJ&hl=en
  7. ↑ http://www.capitalcentury.com/1938.html
  8. ↑ http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush
  9. ↑ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btmurr.html
  10. ↑ http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html
  11. ↑ http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html
  12. ↑ http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html
  13. ↑ http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/ndea/ndea.html
  14. ↑ http://www.dei.isep.ipp.pt/docs/arpa--1.html
  15. ↑ http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/
  16. ↑ http://www.rand.org/publications/RM/RM3420/
  17. ↑ http://livinginternet.com/i/ii_arpanet.htm
  18. ↑ http://community.roxen.com/developers/idocs/rfc/rfc675.html
  19. ↑ http://www.rad.com/networks/1997/nettut/protocols.html
  20. ↑ http://uwsg.iu.edu/usail/concepts/unixhx.html
  21. ↑ http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm
  22. ↑ http://www.herodios.com/herron_tc/atsign.html
  23. ↑ http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm
  24. ↑ http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2014/06/when-parry-met-eliza-a-ridiculous-chatbot-conversation-from-1972/372428/
  25. ↑ http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/
  26. ↑ http://bosco.cso.uiuc.edu/novanet/History.asp
  27. ↑ http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc602.html
  28. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm
  29. ↑ http://www.historyoftheinternet.com/chap3.html
  30. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm
  31. ↑ http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html
  32. ↑ http://www.templetons.com/brad/spamreact.html#msg
  33. ↑ http://www.sherv.net/emoticon-history.html
  34. ↑ http://mashable.com/2011/09/20/emoticon-history/
  35. ↑ http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html
  36. ↑ http://www.naag.org/features/microsoft/law/browser.cfm
  37. ↑ http://www.wired.com/2010/05/0526bill-gates-internet-memo/

For further reading

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