The Story of Cyberspace

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Redaktsioon seisuga 24. august 2015, kell 10:14 kasutajalt WikiHaldur (arutelu | kaastöö)
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UNDER DEVELOPMENT


For starters

If we ask a random guy about Internet, chances are that his reply would be in the vein of "a cool thing for hanging around with friends, reading news and downloading stuff - it was built sometime around 1990 or so". Somebody would probably mention just the F-word (Facebook, that is).

But Internet is older, larger, and more colourful and controversial than just that. It is a communication channel, a mass medium, a fantasy world and a free-for-all arena. As any powerful tool, it can be used for good and evil alike - as we can see later, it can help people in sometimes surprising ways, yet give ground to nasty amounts of superficiality, irresponsibility and cruelty.


Main services

Starting with the most obvious that is often mistaken for 'Internet' by commoners - the World Wide Web or WWW, the hypertext network. What started out as a plain text system suitable for connecting research documents, gradually added new possibilities in graphics and multimedia, largely taking over many roles of previously used services (e.g. as a communication channel - blogs, wikis and social networking sites are technically all just web pages. Or information search - old services like Archie or Gopher were gradually replaced by Google and others). As the backbone of today's information society, Web interfaces can be used to set up home electronics, do car diagnostics or sell stock options.

Then there is the real oldtimer - E-mail. Born half by accident as a side product of data transfer and remote login, it was the main service of Internet for a long time and has not given up much of that - an e-mail address on a calling card is as self-explanatory as a phone number. In addition, it gave rise to early Internet communities in the form of mailing lists, and later, Usenet.

Sometimes people ask "But how was stuff downloaded before the Web?". Using FTP, of course. While it is integrated with Web interfaces in many modern systems, it is still in use as a separate service as well - albeit mostly in its newer, more secure forms (SFTP, FTPS). In addition, P2P services can also considered descendants of FTP[1].

Remote access protocols like Telnet or rlogin also date back to the era of room-sized computers - computers were scarce and expensive, many facilities had to use more powerful machines remotely over distance. With the advent of PCs, Telnet allowed access to large Unix machines from a home PC, many applications that nowadays use the Web were initially available over Telnet (e.g. search engines). Telnet was also the way to log into early chatrooms, talkers and MUDs. Just like FTP, more secure alternatives like SSH have largely replaced original Telnet by now.

Usenet was the pre-web standard of online discussions - for a time, there was a newsgroup for practically everything.

Finally, there was a number of services allowing real-time communication between users. From talk (an utility in Unix that allowed two users to chat) to IRC to various "messengers" (ICQ, AIM, MSN...) to today's web-based chatrooms.


Prehistory

Various authors count different points in history as the beginning of Internet. Some (like Gregory R. Gromov[2]) consider the Atlantic cable of 1866 as the starting point (the first attempt was actually made already in 1858, but it worked just for a couple of days - the cables from 1866 were in use for more than 100 years). Others like Moschovitis et al[3] mention U.S. radio enthusiasts from WWI (likely the first use of 'hacker' in technological context, plus the U.S. Radio Act from 1927, the ancestor of today's data protection laws, was partially motivated by the need to get the rules in place). Yet others start the history from the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 in 1957 that raised a lot of alarm in the U.S. and among other countermeasures, greatly boosted defense-oriented research that led to the development of first packet switching networks.

Some other waypoints include

  • 1938 - the first 'media bubble' when New York aired one of the first audio plays, Herbert G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, performed by the suggestive voice of Orson Welles. The description of Martians invading New York was so vivid that the resulting panic was overwhelming and some people were narrowly kept away from killing themselves[4]. While commercial broadcasting was spreading rapidly in the U.S., there was but little regulation.
  • 1945 - Vannevar Bush writes an article titled As We May Think, suggesting Memex, a hypertext system using microfilm.[5]
  • 1947 - Grace Murray Hopper examined a malfunctioning Mark II computer and discovered a moth that had been stuck and caused the problem. The culprit was taped into the logbook accompanied by the description "The first actual case of a bug being found", and the terms of 'bug', 'debug' and 'debugger' got their start.[6]
  • 1948 - Norbert Wiener publishes Cybernetics, the book that founded a new discipline of the same name.
  • 1956 - John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky chair the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence where the exponential development of technology was first proposed (also, the term 'artificial intelligence' was coined around the same time).[7]
  • 1960 - J.C.R. Licklider publishes a paper titled Man-Computer Symbiosis that predicted many things visible in today's information society.[8]
  • 1962 - Douglas Engelbart publishes Augmenting Human Intelligence: A Conceptual Framework.[9]


Early days

Most authors are in agreement that the actual history of Internet started after the Soviets launching Sputnik 1 which resulted in significant boost to defense-oriented research in the US. The National Defense Education Act[10] was a state-financed student loan programme to train scientists for the military - in 1959 the total was USD 5 billion, rising to 13 billion by 1964. Among the organizations funded from the programme was also the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) that was tasked to find a counter to a possible attack from space[11]. To achieve that, they started to research a possible all-encompassing defense network that was to keep working 'half dead', after the Soviet attack (some sources contest it, but a majority seems to agree).

The initial theory was formulated by Leonhard Kleinrock in MIT in 1961[12] and practical implementation proposed by Paul Baran in 1964[13]. The main idea was to divide traffic into small chunks (called packets) that would be sent over the network independently from each other. The first network connected four computers located in Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Stanford and Utah - the network was later named ARPAnet. The first attempts were rocky at best - there is a well-known description of how 'login' was sent letter by letter over the network and crashed the system at 'g'.[14]

(A side note: while the early days of Internet included famous professors and researchers, the main impetus came from the practical implementors - young, passionate and geeky enthusiasts. In addition to the technology, these people also founded the free-minded, decidedly anti-authoritarian cyberculture - all this taking place during the 'Hippie age' likely played a role too.)

A major challenge was to find a way for different computer types to interact over the network. A set of protocols was created that used layered approach with lower layers dealing with physical connection and networking, upper ones with various applications. The Transmission Control Program (later renamed Transmission Control Protocol or TCP) was created in 1974[15] followed in 1978 by Internet Protocol, forming the foundation of Internet, TCP/IP[16]

In 1969-70, two of the major tools are born, the Unix operating system and C programming language[17]. The Alohanet in Hawaii, built in 1970, became one of the first wireless networks. In 1971, Ray Tomlinson succeeds in sending a text message from one computer to another, later also writing a basic software for sending e-mail[18]. The @-sign comes to use from teletype[19]. In 1972, the first long-distance text chat occurs - true to the spirit of the times, it emulates a 'psychiatrist' in Massachusetts advising a 'patient' in Stanford. [20]. The Telnet protocol for remote connections is developed in the same year.

In 1973, the network expands to the UK and Norway (thus, the term 'Internet' first appears). The doctoral thesis of Bob Metcalfe describes the networks later known as Ethernet.[21]. The first specification of FTP is published. At UIUC, software called Notes is added to the PLATO system, allowing posting texts online - this is considered a forefather of various online systems.[22].

In 1975, first mailing lists are created[23] and the initial version of the Jargon File is published. In January 1975 Altair 8800, one of the first microcomputers targetting hobbyists, is featured in the Popular Electronics magazine - this is noteworthy also for coming with the first Microsoft product in history, the Altair BASIC. 1978 Minitel, a video terminal system that became hugely popular in France (so much that some authors suggest it hindering the initial spread of Internet proper in the country), is launched in Brittany.

These times also brought two new phenomena:

  • Vietnam War and President Nixon's Watergate scandal disillusioned many Americans - it has been suggested that they also motivated first known incidents of computer crime.
  • While Altair BASIC was considered a good piece of software, it was also the first that expected payment for every copy. A lot of people did not comply - so proprietary software and license violations (sometimes called 'piracy') were born togetner.

In 1978, the first ]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletin_board_system BBS] - unsurprisingly named CBBS or Computerized Bulletin Board System - is opened in Chicago by Ward Christensen and Randy Suess[24]. A year later, Usenet is born[25] and the first MUD opens in the Essex University[26] (the exact time differs by authors, different sources suggest 1978-80).

Another well-known phenomenon was born around that time - emoticons a.k. smileys. There are two contenders - opinions differ whether it was Kevin Mackenzie in 1979 or Scott Fahlman in 1982 to use them for the first time.[27][28].

Let there be Internet

In 1982, TCP/IP was officially designated as the core protocol of ARPAnet and Internet is defined in its today's sense of 'network of networks'. UK and Norway leave ARPAnet and replace the cables with a satellite connection.

In 1983, Fidonet is founded - for a time, it was also popular in Estonia due to local phone calls being free and 'real' Internet hard to reach (during the last years of Soviet rule). Ethernet-based local networks flourish, helping also Internet to grow.

By 1985, Internet stabilizes with four main services in E-mail, Telnet, FTP and Usenet, with IRC added in 1988. In 1989, CERN in Switzerland is connected to Internet. Timothy Berners-Lee, a British researcher, had studied non-linear presentation of text since mid-80s, and submitted a research proposal for it in March 1989. His second attempt in 1990 was successful and by 1992, his hypertext method and browser was widely used in research documentation.[29]. As it was available from the CERN FTP archive, it spread quickly (note: Berners-Lee chose to publish his system as public domain).

The "Web explosion" in early 90-s happened due to a number of emerging technologies:

  • PC-compatible computers had become "the personal computer", ensuring a common hardware platform - at first for clients, but later serving also as inexpensive simple server machines.
  • Linux, starting in 1991, offered a free (in both senses) system software (especially when the Apache web server was developed a bit later).
  • MS Windows became the widely used client platform for common users.
  • NCSA Mosaic, the first web browser that developed a wider user base.


A side note: there was an earlier hypertext system developed by the University of Minnesota called [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_%28protocol%29 Gopher} that offered similar user experience (although without graphics). However, it was a poster case of short-sighted business decisions - while Berners-Lee opted for public domain, the developers of Gopher attempted to control and license it for profit (in hindsight, also at the worst possible moment with a strong competitor catching up - when it was re-licensed under GNU GPL in 2000 it was too late by far). Today, people behind Gopher are largely forgotten, while Berners-Lee is a respected inventor of the Web (and most likely also well-off economically).

Marc Andreessen, a former employee of NCSA, founded Netscape Communications in 1994.


Internetist ja veebist sai kiiresti moesõna, soliidsed ajakirjad ja ajalehed kirjutasid üksteise võidu uuest leiutisest. 1994. aasta märtsis lahkus Marc Andreessen NCSAst ja asutas Netscape Communicationsi. Sama aasta alguses esitab Washingtoni Ülikooli tudeng <a href="http://www.thinkpink.com/bp/bio.html">Brian Pinkerton</a> ühel seminaril uut tüüpi rakendust nimega Webcrawler, mis oli mõeldud veebist info otsimiseks. Webcrawlerist saab Pinkertoni väitekirja teema ja ühtlasi esimene veebi-otsingumootor Internetis. Umbes samal ajal hakkavad kaks Stanfordi tudengit (jälle!), <a href="http://www.sun.com/950523/yahoostory.html"> David Filo ja Jerry Yang</a>, oma huvitavate võrguaadresside põhjal koostama võrgukataloogi, mida nimetavad "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle" ehk lühemalt YAHOO. Lingikogust sai tänini toimiv ja väga laialt kasutatav veebikataloog, pluss veel koostöös Netscape'iga ka väga tulutoov äriettevõte.

Interneti ja veebi populaarsuse plahvatuslik kasv nõudis ka suuremat tähelepanu seni küllaltki kaootiliselt kasvanud võrgu arengu koordineerimisele - loodi uued organisatsioonid nagu <a href="http://www.internic.org">InterNIC</a> domeeninimede jagamiseks (1993) ja <a href="http://w3c.org">World Wide Web Consortium</a> (W3C) veebi arengusuundade määratlemiseks (1994). 1995. aastasse jääb kahe tänaseni arvestatava süsteemi sünd - loodi programmeerimiskeel <a href="http://java.sun.com/">Java</a> ning ilmus veebiserveri <a href="http://www.apache.org"> Apache</a> esmaversioon (ka hilisemate suursoosikute PHP ja MySQLi algvariantide ilmumine jääb sellesse aega).

Veebis leiduva materjali kontrollimatus ja "seinast seina" sisu pahandas USA võimumehi ning esimese nendepoolse käiguna pakuti 1995/96. aastal välja <a href="http://www.epic.org/cda/exon_bill.html"> Communication Decency Act</a> (CDA) - tulemuseks oli ülevõrguline protestilaine, mis sundis võimuesindajaid tagasi tõmbuma. Järgmisel aastal aga tehti uus katse COPA-ga (Child Online Protection Act) - mingis vormis läks see läbi, kuid praktilist tsensuuri siiski kehtestada ei õnnestunud ja <a href="http://www.epic.org/free_speech/copa/">maadejagamine jätkub tänini</a>, ehkki 2000. aastal tehtud kolmas katse Children's Internet Protection Act'i näol oli kõige edukam (hoolimata Ameerika Raamatukogude Assotsiatsiooni kolmeaastasest vastupanust) ning Bushi praegune administratsioon on muuhulgas ka Interneti tsenseerimise suunas mitmeid samme astunud.

Vastukaaluks võrgus süvenevale ärimeelele ja kontrollimaaniale avaldas ansambli Grateful Dead endine laulutekstikirjutaja John Perry Barlow <a href="http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html"> "Küberruumi iseseisvusdeklaratsiooni"</a>, mis tõstis taas prioriteediks võrgu esialgsed hoiakud ja väärtused.

Kui tarkvaratööstuse hiiglane Microsoft oli seni suhtunud Interneti küllaltki üleolevalt ja pidanud seda eelkõige puberteetikute mänguasjaks, siis Netscape'i majanduslik edu ja omapoolne arusaamisele jõudmine võrgu tähtsusest pani firma 1996. aastal oma turustrateegiat kõvasti revideerima ja suunama suure osa ressurssidest võrgutoodete arendamisele (eelnevalt tehti kaks edutut pingutust - esmalt üritati <a href="http://www.naag.org/features/microsoft/law/browser.cfm"> Netscape'i keelitada oma brauserit Windowsi jaoks mitte tegema</a>, seejärel loodeti Microsoft Networkiga Internet üle trumbata). Tulemuseks oli nn. brauserisõda Netscape'iga, mis kestab mingil määral tänini, ehkki Microsofti võimsus ja rikkus on kuni viimase ajani kippunud vaekaussi nende kasuks kallutama. Tuleb arvata, et viimast sõna pole veel öeldud - taas kord on pead tõstmas ka muud veebilehitsejad eesotsas Mozilla ja Firefoxiga - , kuid igal juhul on juba praegu selge, et brauserisõjas võitsid eelkõige tarbijad (Microsofti sundimine midagi tasuta levitama on iseenesest juba sündmus omaette :) ).

Sajandivahetuse märksõnadeks võiks olla veebi tugev kommertsialiseerumine (see algas tegelikult juba 1996. aasta paiku), multimeediatehnoloogiate (RealAudio, Flash, MP3) kiire levik ning uute tehnoloogiate kasutuselevõtt. Interneti omanäolisus ja erijooned muude meediakanalitega on siiski säilinud, niisamuti häkkerivaim ja küberkultuur, mis arenevad koos Internetiga edasi. Lisaks on vaba tarkvara, mis pärit Internetiga samast ajastust ja ideedest, hakanud üha jõulisemalt konkureerima kommertslahendustega.

Sajandivahetuse paiku sai alguse ka sõnumiedastussüsteemide populaarsuse kiire kasv, mis suuresti tõrjusid välja varasemad jututoad ning mingil määral ka IRC. 1996. aastal loodi ICQ, 1997 AOLi AIM (millest hiljem arenes Gaim/Pidgin) ja 1999 MSN Messenger (2006 nimetati ümber Windows Live Messengeriks). Sajandivahetuse paiku tekkisid erinevaid protokolle toetavad kliendid ning levima hakkas ka avatud lähtekoodil põhinev Jabber.

Teise suure tendentsina tuleks mainida sotsiaalse tarkvara esiletõusu (ajaveebid, wikid jne), sellest aga tuleb täpsemalt juttu järgmises loengus. Siinkohal võiks aga siiski mainida mõningaid tuntumaid rakendusi - 2001 sai alguse <a href="http://www.wikipedia.org" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, 2004 <a href="http://www.flickr.com" title="Flickr">Flickr</a>, 2005 <a href="http://www.youtube.com" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>... Ühe juba pikema ajalooga nähtusena (pärineb ajast juba enne sotsiaaltarkvara buumi) väärib äramärkimist fännikirjandus, kus huvilised kirjutavad oma lõbuks täiendavaid osi näiteks "Sõrmuste isandale", "Näljamängudele" ja mitmetele muudele kuulsatele lugudele (kindlasti on nende tase kõikuv, kuid näiteks <a href="http://www.fanfiction.net" title="Fanfiction.net">FanFiction.net'is</a> ja <a href="http://www.archiveofourown.org" title="ArchiveOfOurOwn">AO3's</a> leiab ka lugusid, mis ei jää tasemelt alla algallikatele).

Mainida tuleks ka mikroblogimist, kus ajaveebi sissekanded on piiratud SMS-sõnumiga võrreldava mahuga (näiteks 140 tähemärki). Üle maailma on populaarne <a href="http://www.twitter.com" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, ent on olemas ka Soomes loodud ja hiljem Google'i omandatud <a href="http://www.jaiku.com" title="Jaiku">Jaiku</a>, vaba tarkvara põhimõtteid rõhutav <a href="http://www.identi.ca" title="identi.ca">identi.ca</a> jpt.

Ja muidugi ei saa üle ega ümber sotsiaalvõrgustikest, mis on tänaseks saanud lisaks inimeste ühendamisele ka mitmeid muid funktsioone õppimisest poliitikani. Esimesteks tänases mõttes sotsiaalvõrgustikeks olid 2002. aastal alustanud <a href="http://www.friendster.com" title="Friendster">Friendster</a> ja ... <a href="http://www.rate.ee" title="Rate.ee">Rate.ee</a> (ehkki viimase puhul võib veidi vaielda selle üle, kuivõrd oli tegu üldotstarbelise võrgustikuga ja kuivõrd fotoportaaliga). 2003. aastal lisandusid <a href="http://www.myspace.com" title="MySpace">MySpace</a> ja <a href="http://www.linkedin.com" title="LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a> ning veel aasta pärast juba ka Eestis laia kõlapinda leidnud <a href="http://www.orkut.com" title="Orkut">Orkut</a> ja tänini siinmail valitsev <a href="http://www.facebook.com" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>. Hilisematest tulijatest tasub mainida 2010. aastal alustanud ning 2012. aastal kogukonnapõhiseks muudetud <a href="http://diasporaproject.org/" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a> projekti (mis erinevalt paljudest teistest üritab pöörata tähelepanu ka kasutaja privaatsusele) ning 2011. alguse saanud <a href="http://plus.google.com" title="Google+">Google+'i</a>. Huvitava detailina võib mainida ka kaht üksteisele järgnenud "rahvasterändamist" siinmail - Orkuti sünni järel kolis suur osa veidi vanemaid kasutajaid Rate.ee pealt sinna, üsna varsti aga järgnes suur ülekolimine Facebooki. Viimaste aastate tuntumate tulijate seas võib veel mainida <a href="http://www.instagram.com" title="Instagram">Instagrami</a>, <a href="http://www.reddit.com" title="Reddit">Redditit</a>, <a href="http://www.tumblr.com title="Tumblr">Tumblrit</a> ja <a href="http://www.snapchat.com" title="Snapchat">Snapchatti</a>

Negatiivsete nähtuste osas aga tuleks lähemalt peatuda veel ühel viimaste aastate probleemil. Nimelt on püsiühenduste hinnad langenud tavakasutajale kättesaadavasse hinnaklassi ning nende kasutamine on plahvatuslikult kasvanud. Kasvanud aga ei ole tavalise arvutikasutaja oskused ja teadmised - ja kui arvesse võtta, et rõhuv enamus neist kasutab oma arvutis niigi turvaprobleemide all kannatavaid MS operatsioonisüsteeme, mis pealegi jäetakse pahatihti isegi elementaartasemel uuendamata, siis ongi pahandus käes. Absoluutne enamik võrgus levivatest pahadest asjadest - viirused, nuhk- ja pättvara, ründeskriptid, ka lihtsalt ebaseaduslik tarkvara - võlgneb oma suure leviulatuse pahaaimamatute võhikute arvutitele, mille kurikaelad on "rajalt maha võtnud" ja sinna enda pesa teinud. Tulemuseks on olukord, kus arvutiomaniku lollus ei löö tagasi mitte ainult tema enese pihta (võib ka üldse mitte lüüa - vahel võib selline mahamurtud süsteem pikka aega ka väliselt tõrgeteta töötada ja arvutiomanik ei aimagi, mis toimub. Vähemalt senikaua, kuni tema arvutist pole FBI peakorterit rünnatud), vaid ka paljudele teistele. Kui õnnetusekuulutajad on juba mõnda aega ennustanud Interneti solgisurma - ehk siis olukorda, kus rämpspost ja viirused muudavad võrgu kasutamise mõttetuks -, siis eespoolkirjeldatud olukord on sellele tublisti kaasa aitamas. Võib-olla tuleks püsiühenduste taotlejatel hakata sooritama eksameid või seatakse sisse koduarvutite perioodiline ülevaatus... Praegu on paraku olukord võrreldav linnaliiklusega, kus peremehetsevad lollid, ülbed ja logude autode roolis istuvad rullnokad. Microsofti poolt hiljuti pakutud lahendus "Laske meil 50 dollari eest aastas ise teie arvutit hallata" ei ole ilmselt paljudele vastuvõetav.

Mis saab edasi? Üsna huvitav on jälgida kahe vastandliku tendentsi arengut. Ühelt poolt kestab ikka veel Microsofti ja teiste suurfirmade ülemvõim, teisalt ei suuda isegi nende miljardid anda lõplikku hoopi alternatiivsele lähenemisele (vaba ja avatud lähtekoodiga tarkvara ja sellega seotud uued ärimudelid). Kui kaua kaksikvõim kestab ja kuhu poole asi kaldub, näitavad lähiaastad. Aga muidugi pole ka võimatu, et Võrku ootab ikkagi solgisurm...

References

  1. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_file_sharing
  2. ↑ http://www.netvalley.com/intval1.html
  3. ↑ https://books.google.ee/books/about/History_of_the_Internet.html?id=Hu5SAAAAMAAJ&hl=en
  4. ↑ http://www.capitalcentury.com/1938.html
  5. ↑ http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush
  6. ↑ http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btmurr.html
  7. ↑ http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html
  8. ↑ http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html
  9. ↑ http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html
  10. ↑ http://ishi.lib.berkeley.edu/cshe/ndea/ndea.html
  11. ↑ http://www.dei.isep.ipp.pt/docs/arpa--1.html
  12. ↑ http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/
  13. ↑ http://www.rand.org/publications/RM/RM3420/
  14. ↑ http://livinginternet.com/i/ii_arpanet.htm
  15. ↑ http://community.roxen.com/developers/idocs/rfc/rfc675.html
  16. ↑ http://www.rad.com/networks/1997/nettut/protocols.html
  17. ↑ http://uwsg.iu.edu/usail/concepts/unixhx.html
  18. ↑ http://www.pretext.com/mar98/features/story2.htm
  19. ↑ http://www.herodios.com/herron_tc/atsign.html
  20. ↑ http://www.supercomp.org/sc97/inet_history97/readerrail1.htm
  21. ↑ http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/
  22. ↑ http://bosco.cso.uiuc.edu/novanet/History.asp
  23. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/l/li.htm
  24. ↑ http://www.historyoftheinternet.com/chap3.html
  25. ↑ http://www.livinginternet.com/u/ui.htm
  26. ↑ http://www.ibiblio.org/TH/mud.html
  27. ↑ http://www.sherv.net/emoticon-history.html
  28. ↑ http://mashable.com/2011/09/20/emoticon-history/
  29. ↑ http://www.w3.org/History/1989/proposal.html

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